Reviied  Edition,  1§96.         >  >    ,  > 

HIGHER  Lessons  m  English 


A   WORK   ON 

ENGLISH    GEAMMAE    AHD 
COMPOSITION", 

In  which  the  Science  of  the  Language  is  made  tributary  tc 
THE  Art  of  Expression. 


A  COURSE  OF  PRACTICAL  LESSONS  CAREFULLY  GRADED, 

AND  ADAPTED  TO  EVER  YD  AY  USE  IN 

THE  SCHOOL-ROOM. 


ALONZO   EEED,  A.M., 

FOKITBBLT  IirSTRUCTOR  IK  EkGLISH  GrBAMllAB  IN  THB  POLTTJtOHNIO  InSTJTUTB, 

Bbookltn, 


BRAINERD   KELLOGG,  LL.D., 

PjBOrESSOB  OP  THE  ENGLISH  LaNOUAOE  AND   LiTEBATUEB  IN  TH 
POLTTEOHNIO  INSTITUTE,  BbOOKLTN. 


NEW  YORK: 

Maynard,  Merrill,  &   Co.,   Publishers, 
29,  31  &  33  East  19th  Street. 

1899. 


EDUCATION  DEFT, 

Copyright,  1877, 1885, 1896. 
By  Alonzo  Ried  and  Bkainebd  Kellogg. 


Press  of  J.  J.  Little  &  Co. 
Astor  Place,  New  York 


PREFACE. 

The  plan  of  "Higher  Lessons"  will  perhaps  be  better  understood 
if  we  first  speak  of  two  classes  of  text-books  with  which  this  work  is 
brought  into  competition. 

Method  of  One  Class  of  Text-books. — In  one  class  are  those 
that  aim  chiefly  to  present  a  course  of  technical  grammar  in  the  order 
of  Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax,  and  Prosody.  These  books  give 
large  space  to  grammatical  Etymology,  and  demand  much  memorizing 
of  definitions,  rules,  declensions,  and  conjugations,  and  much  formal 
word  parsing, — work  of  which  a  considerable  portion  is  merely  the 
invention  of  grammarians,  and  has  little  value  in  determining  the 
pupil's  use  of  language  or  in  developing  his  reasoning  faculties. 
This  is  a  revival  of  the   long-endured,  unfruitful,  old-time  method. 

Method  of  Another  Class  of  Text-hooks. — In  another  class  are 
those  that  present  a  miscellaneous  collection  of  lessons  in  Composition, 
Spelling,  Pronunciation,  Sentence-analysis,  Technical  Grammar,  and 
General  Information,  without  unity  or  continuity.  The  pupil  who 
completes  these  books  will  have  gained  something  by  practice  and  will 
have  picked  up  some  scraps  of  knowledge  ;  but  his  information  will  be 
vague  and  disconnected,  and  he  will  have  missed  that  mental  training 
which  it  is  the  aim  of  a  good  text-book  to  afford.  A  text-book  is  of 
value  just  so  far  as  it  presents  a  clear,  logical  development  of  its 
subject.  It  must  present  its  science  or  its  art  as  a  natural  growth, 
otherwise  there  is  no  apology  for  its  being. 

The  Study  of  the  Sentence  for  the  Proper  Use  of  Words. — It 
is  the  plan  of  this  book  to  trace  with  easy  steps  the  natural  develop- 
ment of  the  sentence,  to  consider  the  leading  facts  first  and  then  to 


iv  Preface. 

descend  to  the  details.  To  begin  with  the  parts  of  speech  is  to  begin 
with  details  and  to  disregard  the  higher  unities,  without  which  the 
details  are  scarcely  intelligible.  The  part  of  speech  to  which  a  word 
belongs  is  determined  only  by  its  function  in  the  sentence,  and  inflec- 
tions simply  mark  the  oflices  and  relations  of  words.  Unless  the  pupil 
has  been  systematically  trained  to  discover  the  functions  and  relations 
of  words  as  elements  of  an  organic  whole,  his  knowledge  of  the  parts 
of  speech  is  of  little  value.  It  is  not  because  he  cannot  conjugate  the 
verb  or  decline  the  pronoun  that  he  falls  into  such  errors  as  "  How 
many  sounds  have  each  of  the  vowels  ?  "  *'  Five  years'  interest  are 
due."  "She  is  older  than  me."  He  probably  would  not  say  "each 
have,"  "interest  are,"  "me  am."  One  thoroughly  familiar  with  the 
structure  of  the  sentence  will  find  little  trouble  in  using  correctly 
the  few  inflectional  forms  in  English. 

The  Study  of  the  Sentence  for  the  Laws  of  Discourse. — 
Through  the  study  of  the  sentence  we  not  only  arrive  at  an  intelligent 
knowledge  of  the  parts  of  speech  and  a  correct  use  of  grammatical 
forms,  but  we  discover  the  laws  of  discourse  in  general.  In  the 
sentence  the  student  should  find  the  law  of  unity,  of  continuity,  of 
proportion,  of  order.  All  good  writing  consists  of  good  sentences 
properly  joined.  Since  the  sentence  is  the  foundation  or  unit  of  dis- 
course, it  is  all-important  that  the  pupil  should  know  the  sentence. 
He  should  be  able  to  put  the  principal  and  the  subordinate  parts  in 
their  proper  relation  ;  he  should  know  the  exact  function  of  every 
element,  its  relation  to  other  elements  and  its  relation  to  the  whole. 
He  should  know  the  sentence  as  the  skillful  engineer  knows  his  engine, 
that,  when  there  is  a  disorganization  of  parts,  he  may  at  once  find  the 
difliculty  and  the  remedy  for  it. 

The  Study  of  the  Sentence  for  the  Sake  of  Translation, — 
The  laws  of  thought  being  the  same  for  all  nations,  the  logical  analysis 
of  the  sentence  is  the  same  for  all  languages.  When  a  student  who  has 
acquired  a  knowledge  of  the  English  sentence  comes  to  the  translation 


Preface. 


of  a  foreign  language,  he  finds  his  work  greatly  simplified.  If  in  a 
sentence  of  his  own  language  he  sees  only  a  mass  of  unorganized 
words,  how  much  greater  must  be  his  confusion  when  this  mass  of 
words  is  in  a  foreign  tongue  !  A  study  of  the  parts  of  speech  is  a  far 
less  important  preparation  for  translation,  since  the  declensions  and 
conjugations  in  English  do  not  conform  to  those  of  other  languages. 
Teachers  of  the  classics  and  of  modern  languages  are  beginning  to 
appreciate  these  facts. 

The  Study  of  the  Sentence  for  Discipline. — As  a  means  of 
discipline  nothing  can  compare  with  a  training  in  the  logical  analysis 
of  the  sentence.  To  study  thought  through  its  outward  form,  the 
sentence,  and  to  discover  the  fitness  of  the  different  parts  of  the 
expression  to  the  parts  of  the  thought,  is  to  learn  to  think.  It  has 
been  noticed  that  pupils  thoroughly  trained  in  the  analysis  and  the 
construction  of  sentences  come  to  their  other  studies  with  a  decided 
advantage  in  mental  power.  These  results  can  be  obtained  only  by 
systematic  and  persistent  work.  Experienced  teachers  understand 
that  a  few  weak  lessons  on  the  sentence  at  the  beginning  of  a  course 
and  a  few  at  the  end  can  afford  little  discipline  and  little  knowledge 
that  will  endure,  nor  can  a  knowledge  of  the  sentence  be  gained  by 
memorizing  complicated  rules  and  labored  forms  of  analysis.  To 
compel  a  pupil  to  wade  through  a  page  or  two  of  such  bewildering 
terms  as  "complex  adverbial  element  of  the  second  class"  and  "  com- 
pound prepositional  adjective  phrase,"  in  order  to  comprehend  a  few 
simple  functions,  is  grossly  unjust  ;  it  is  a  substitution  of  form  for 
content,  of  words  for  ideas. 

Subdivisions  and  Modifications  after  the  Sentence. — Teachers 
familiar  with  text-books  that  group  all  grammatical  instruction  around 
the  eight  parts  of  speech,  making  eight  independent  units,  will  not, 
in  the  following  lessons,  find  everything  in  its  accustomed  place. 
But,  when  it  is  remembered  that  the  thread  of  connection  unifying  this 
work  is  the  sentence,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  lessons  fall  into  their 


vi  Preface. 

natural  order  of  sequence.  When,  through  the  development  of  the 
sentence,  all  the  offices  of  the  different  parts  of  speech  are  mastered, 
the  most  natural  thing  is  to  continue  the  work  of  classification  and 
subdivide  the  parts  of  speech.  The  inflection  of  words,  being  distinct 
from  their  classification,  makes  a  separate  division  of  the  work.  If 
the  chief  end  of  grammar  were  to  enable  one  to  parse,  we  should  not 
here  depart  from  long-established  precedent. 

Sentences  in  Groups — Paragraphs. — In  tracing  the  growth  of 
the  sentence  from  the  simplest  to  the  most  complex  form,  each  ele- 
ment, as  it  is  introduced,  is  illustrated  by  a  large  number  of  detached 
sentences,  chosen  with  the  utmost  care  as  to  thought  and  expression. 
These  compel  the  pupil  to  confine  his  attention  to  one  thing  till  he 
gets  it  well  in  hand.  Paragraphs  from  literature  are  then  selected  to 
be  used  at  intervals,  with  questions  and  suggestions  to  enforce  prin- 
ciples already  presented,  and  to  prepare  the  way  informally  for  the 
regular  lessons  that  follow.  The  lessons  on  these  selections  are, 
however,  made  to  take  a  much  wider  scope.  They  lead  the  pupil 
to  discover  how  and  why  sentences  are  grouped  into  paragraphs,  and 
how  paragraphs  are  related  to  each  other  ;  they  also  lead  him  on  to 
discover  whatever  is  most  worthy  of  imitation  in  the  style  of  the  sev- 
eral models  presented. 

The  Use  of  the  Diagram. — In  written  analysis,  the  simple  map^ 
or  diagram,  found  in  the  following  lessons,  will  enable  the  pupil  tc 
present  directly  and  vividly  to  the  eye  the  exact  function  of  every 
clause  in  the  sentence,  of  every  phrase  in  the  clause,  and  of  every 
word  in  the  phrase — to  picture  the  complete  analysis  of  the  sentence, 
with  principal  and  subordinate  parts  in  their  proper  relations.  It 
is  only  by  the  aid  of  such  a  map,  or  picture,  that  the  pupil  can,  at  a 
single  view,  see  the  sentence  as  an  organic  whole  made  up  of  many 
parts  performing  various  functions  and  standing  in  various  relations. 
Without  such  map  he  must  labor  under  the  disadvantage  of  seeing 
all  these  things  by  piecemeal  or  in  succession. 


Preface. 


But,  if  for  any  reason  the  teacher  prefers  not  to  use  these  diagrams, 
they  may  be  omitted  without  causing  the  slightest  break  in  the  work. 
The  plan  of  this  book  is  in  no  way  dependent  on  the  use  of  the 
diagrams. 

The  Objections  to  the  Diagram. — The  fact  that  the  pictorial 
diagram  groups  the  parts  of  a  sentence  according  to  their  offices  and 
relations,  and  not  in  the  order  of  speech,  has  been  spoken  of  as  a  fault. 
It  is,  on  the  contrary,  a  merit,  for  it  teaches  the  pupil  to  look  through 
the  literary  order  and  discover  the  logical  order.  He  thus  learns  what 
the  literary  order  really  is,  and  sees  that  this  may  be  varied  indefi- 
nitely, so  long  as  the  logical  relations  are  kept  clear. 

The  assertion  that  correct  diagrams  can  be  made  mechanically  is 
not  borne  out  by  the  facts.  It  is  easier  to  avoid  precision  in  oral 
analysis  than  in  written.  The  diagram  drives  the  pupil  to  a  most 
searching  examination  of  the  sentence,  brings  him  face  to  face  with 
every  difficulty,  and  compels  a  decision  on  every  point. 

The  Abuse  of  the  Diagram. — Analysis  by  diagram  often  becomes 
so  interesting  and  so  helpful  that,  like  other  good  things,  it  is  liable  to 
be  overdone.  There  is  danger  of  requiring  too  much  written  analysis. 
When  the  ordinary  constructions  have  been  made  clear,  diagrams  should 
be  used  only  for  the  more  difficult  sentences,  or,  if  the  sentences  are 
long,  only  for  the  more  difficult  parts  of  them.  In  both  oral  and 
written  analysis  there  is  danger  of  repeating  what  needs  no  repetition. 
"When  the  diagram  has  served  its  purpose,  it  should  be  dropped. 


AUTHORS'  NOTE  TO  REVISED  EDITION. 

During  the  years  in  which  "Higher  Lessons  "  has  been  in  existence, 
we  have  ourselves  had  an  instructive  experience  with  it  in  the  class- 
room. We  have  considered  hundreds  of  suggestive  letters  written  us 
by  intelligent  teachers  using  the  book.  We  have  examined  the  best 
works  on  grammar  that  have  been  published  recently  here  and  in 
England.  And  we  have  done  more.  We  have  gone  to  the  original 
source  of  all  valid  authority  in  our  language — the  best  writers  and 
speakers  of  it.  That  we  might  ascertain  what  present  linguistic 
usage  is,  we  chose  fifty  authors,  now  alive  or  living  till  recently, 
and  have  carefully  read  three  hundred  pages  of  each.  We  have 
minutely  noted  and  recorded  what  these  men  by  habitual  use  declare 
to  be  good  English.  Among  the  fifty  are  such  men  as  Ruskin,  Froude, 
Hamerton,  Matthew  Arnold,  Macaulay,  De  Quincey,  Thackeray, 
Bagehot,  John  Morley,  James  Martineau,  Cardinal  Newman,  J.  R. 
Green,  and  Lecky  in  England  ;  and  Hawthorne,  Curtis,  Prof.  W.  D. 
Whitney,  George  P.  Marsh,  Prescott,  Emerson,  Motley,  Prof.  Austin 
Phelps,  Holmes,  Edward  Everett,  Irving,  and  Lowell  in  America. 
When  in  the  pages  following  we  anywhere  quote  usage,  it  is  to  the 
authority  of  such  men  that  we  appeal. 

Upon  these  four  sources  of  help  we  have  drawn  in  the  Revision  of 
*'  Higher  Lessons  "  that  we  now  offer  to  the  public. 

In  this  revised  work  we  have  given  additional  reasons  for  the  opin- 
ions we  hold,  and  have  advanced  to  some  new  positions;  have  explained 
more  fully  what  some  teachers  have  thought  obscure ;  have  qualified 
what  we  think  was  put  too  positively  in  former  editions  ;  have  given 
the  history  of  constructions  where  this  would  deepen  interest  or  aid 
in  composition ;  have  quoted  the  verdicts  of  usage  on  many  locutions 
condemned  by  purists  ;  have  tried  to  work  into  the  pupil's  style  the 
felicities  of  expression  found  in  the  lesson  sentences  ;  have  taught  the 
pupil  earlier  in  the  work,  and  more  thoroughly,  the  structure  and  the 
function  of  paragraphs  ;  and  have  led  him  on  from  the  composition 


Authors'  Note  to  Revised  Edition. 


of  single  sentences  of  all  kinds  to  the  composition  of  these  great  groups 
of  sentences.  But  the  distinctive  features  of  "  Higher  Lessons  "  that 
have  made  the  work  so  useful  and  so  popular  stand  as  they  have 
stood — the  Study  of  Words  from  their  Offices  in  the  Sentence,  Analy- 
sis for  the  sake  of  subsequent  Synthesis,  Easy  Gradation,  the  Sub- 
divisions and  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  after  the  treatment 
of  these  in  the  Sentence,  etc.,  etc.  We  confess  to  some  surprise  that 
so  little  of  what  was  thought  good  in  matter  and  method  years  ago 
has  been  seriously  affected  by  criticism  since. 

The  additions  made  to  "  Higher  Lessons" — additions  that  bring  the 
work  up  to  the  latest  requirements — are  generally  in  foot-notes  to 
pages,  and  sometimes  are  incorporated  into  the  body  of  the  Lessons, 
which  in  number  and  numbering  remain  as  they  were.  The  books  of 
former  editions  and  those  of  this  revised  edition  can,  therefore,  be  used 
in  the  same  class  without  any  inconvenience. 

Of  the  teachers  who  have  given  us  invaluable  assistance  in  this 
Revision,  we  wish  specially  to  name  Prof.  Henry  M.  Worrell,  of  the  Poly- 
technic Institute  ;  and  in  this  edition  of  the  work,  as  in  the  preceding, 
we  take  pleasure  in  acknowledging  our  great  indebtedness  to  our  critic, 
the  distinguished  Prof.  Francis  A.  March,  of  Lafayette  College. 


LESSON     1. 

A   TALK    ON    LANGUAGE. 

Let  us  talk  to-day  about  a  language  that  we  never  learn  from  a 
grammar  or  from  a  book  of  any  kind — a  language  that  we  come  by 
naturally,  and  use  without  thinking  of  it. 

It  is  a  universal  language,  and  consequently  needs  no  interpreter, 
People  of  all  lands  and  of  all  degrees  of  culture  use  it ;  even  the  brute 
animals  in  some  measure  understand  it. 

This  Natural  language  is  the  language  of  cries,  laughter,  and  tones  i 
the  language  of  the  eyes,  the  nose,  the  mouth,  the  whole  face  ;  the 
language  of  gestures  and  postures. 

The  child's  cry  tells  of  its  wants  ;  its  sob,  of  grief ;  its  scream,  of 
pain  ;  its  laugh,  of  delight.  The  boy  raises  his  eyebrows  in  surprise 
and  his  nose  in  disgust,  leans  forward  in  expectation,  draws  back  in 
fear,  makes  a  fist  in  anger,  and  calls  or  drives  away  his  dog  simply 
by  the  tone  in  which  he  speaks. 

But  feelings  and  desires  are  not  the  only  things  we  wish  to  com- 
municate. Early  in  life  we  begin  to  acquire  knowledge  and  learn  to 
think,  and  then  we  feel  the  need  of  a  better  language. 

Suppose,  for  instance,  you  have  formed  an  idea  of  a  day;  could  you 
express  this  by  a  tone,  a  look,  or  a  gesture  ? 

If  you  wish  to  tell  me  the  fact  that  yesterday  was  cloudy,  or  that 
the  days  are  shorter  in  winter  than  in  summer,  you  find  it  wholly 
impossible  to  do  this  by  means  of  Natural  language. 

To  communicate,  then,  your  thoughts,  or  even  the  mental  pictures 
we  have  called  ideas,  you  need  a  language  more  nearly  perfect. 

This  language  is  made  up  of  words. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


^  Thesvj  words  you  iea*ra '  f rdm-  your  mothers,  and  so  Word  language 
is  your  mother-tongue.  You  learn  them,  also,  from  your  friends  and 
teachers,  your  playmates  and  companions,  and  you  learn  them  by 
reading  ;  for  words,  as  you  know,  may  be  written  as  well  as  spoken. 

This  Word  language  we  may,  from  its  superiority,  call  Language 
Proper. 

Natural  language,  as  was  said,  precedes  this  Word  language,  but 
gives  way  as  Word  language  comes  in  and  takes  its  place  ;  yet  Nat- 
ural language  may  be  used,  and  always  should  be  used,  to  assist  and 
strengthen  Word  language.  In  earnest  conversation  we  enforce  what 
we  say  in  words,  by  the  tone  in  which  we  utter  them,  by  the  varying 
expression  of  the  face,  and  by  the  movements  of  the  different  parts 
of  the  body. 

The  look  or  the  gesture  may  even  dart  ahead  of  the  word,  or  it  may 
contradict  it,  and  thus  convict  the  speaker  of  ignorance  or  deception. 

The  happy  union  of  the  two  kinds  of  language  is  the  charm  of  all 
good  reading  and  speaking.  The  teacher  of  elocution  is  ever  trying 
to  recall  the  pupil  to  the  tones,  the  facial  expression,  and  the  action, 
so  natural  to  him  in  childhood. and  in  animated  conversation. 

DEFINITION. — Language  Proper  consists  of  the  spoken 
and  the  written  words  used  to  communicate  ideas  and  thoughts. 

DEFINITION. — English  Grannmar  is  the  science  which 
teaches  the  forms,  uses,  and  relations  of  the  words  of  the 
English  language. 


LESSON     2. 

A    TALK    ON    THOUGHTS    AND    SENTENCES. 

To  express  a  thought  we  use  more  than  a  single  word,  and  the 
words  arranged-  to  express  a  thought  we  call  a  sentence. 
But  there  was  a  time  when,  through  lack  of  words,  we  compressed 


A  Talk  on  Thoughts  and  Sentences.  8 


our  thought  into  a  single  word.  The  child  says  to  his  father,  up, 
meaning,  Take  me  up  into  your  lap;  or,  hook,  meaning,  This  thing 
in  my  hand  is  a  hook. 

These  first  words  always  deal  with  the  things  that  can  be  learned 
by  the  senses  ;  they  express  the  child's  ideas  of  these  things. 

We  have  spoken  of  thoughts  and  sentences  ;  let  us  see  now  whether 
we  can  find  out  what  a  thought  is,  and  what  a  sentence  is. 

A  sentence  is  a  group  of  words  expressing  a  thought ;  it  is  a  body  of 
which  a  thought  is  the  soul.  It  is  something  that  can  be  seen  or 
heard,  while  a  thought  cannot  be.  Let  us  see  whether,  in  studying  a 
sentence,  we  may  not  learn  what  a  thought  is. 

In  any  such  sentence  as  this,  Spiders  spin,  something  is  said,  or 
asserted,  about  something.  Here  it  is  said,  or  asserted,  of  the  ani- 
mals, spiders,  that  they  spin. 

The  sentence,  then,  consists  of  two  parts, — the  name  of  that  of 
which  something  is  said,  and  that  which  is  said  of  it. 

The  first  of  these  parts  we  call  the  Subject  of  the  sentence  ;  the 
second,  the  Predicate. 

Now,  if  the  sentence,  composed  of  two  parts,  expresses  the  thought, 
there  must  be  in  the  thought  two  parts  to  be  expressed.  And  there 
are  two  ;  viz.,  something  of  which  we  think,  and  that  which  we 
think  of  it.  In  the  thought  expressed  by  Spiders  spin,  the  anunals, 
spiders,  are  the  something  of  which  we  think,  and  their  spinning  is 
what  we  think  of  them.  In  the  sentence  expressing  this  thought,  the 
word  spiders  namps  that  of  which  we  think,  and  the  word  spin  tells 
what  we  think  of  spiders. 

Not  every  group  of  words  is  necessarily  a  sentence,  because  it  may 
not  be  the  expression  of  a  thought.  Spiders  spinning  is  not  a  sen° 
tence.  There  is  nothing  in  this  expression  to  show  that  we  have 
formed  a  judgment,  i.  e.,  that  we  have  really  made  up  our  minds 
that  spiders  do  spin.     The  spinning  is  not  asserted  of  the  spiders. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Soft  feathers,  The  shining  sun  are  not  sentences,  and  for  similar 
reasons.  Feathers  are  soft,  The  sun  shines  are  sentences.  Here  the 
asserting  word  is  supplied,  and  something  is  said  of  something  else. 

The  shines  sun  is  not  a  sentence;  for,  though  it  contains  the  assert- 
ing word  shines,  the  arrangement  is  such  that  no  assertion  is  made, 
and  no  thought  is  expressed. 


LESSON    3. 

A    TALK    ON    SOUNDS    AND    LETTERS. 

We  have  already  told  you  that  in  expressing  our  ideas  and  thoughts 
we  use  two  kinds  of  words,  spoken  words  and  written  words. 

We  learned  the  spoken  words  first.  Mankind  spoke  long  before 
they  wrote.  Not  until  people  wished  to  communicate  with  those  at 
a  distance,  or  had  thought  out  something  worth  handing  down  to 
aftertimes,  did  they  need  to  write. 

But  speaking  was  easy.  The  air,  the  lungs,  and  the  organs  of  the 
throat  and  mouth  were  at  hand.  The  first  cry  was  a  suggestion. 
Sounds  and  noises  were  heard  on  every  side,  provoking  imitation, 
and  the  need  of  speech  for  the  purposes  of  communication  was  im- 
perative. 

Spoken  words  are  made  up  of  sounds.  There  are  over  forty  sounds 
in  the  English  language.  The  different  combinations  of  these  give 
us  all  the  words  of  our  spoken  tongue.  That  you  may  clearly  under- 
stand these  sounds,  we  will  tell  you  something  about  the  human  voice. 

In  talking,  the  air  driven  out  from  your  lungs  beats  against  two 
flat  muscles,  stretched,  like  bands,  across  the  top  of  the  windpipe, 
and  causes  them  to  vibrate  up  and  down.  This  vibration  makes 
sound.  Take  a  thread,  put  one  end  between  your  teeth,  hold  the 
other  with  thumb  and  finger,  draw  it  tight  and  strike  it,  and  you  will 
anderstand  how  voice  is  made.     The  shorter  the  string,  or  the  tighter 


A  Talk  on  Sounds  and  Letters. 


it  is  drawn,  the  faster  will  it  vibrate,  and  the  higher  will  be  the  pitch 
of  the  sound.  The  more  violent  the  blow,  the  farther  will  the  string 
vibrate,  and  the  louder  will  be  the  sound.  Just  so  with  these  vocal 
bands,  or  cords.  The  varying  force  with  which  the  breath  strikes 
them,  and  their  different  tensions  and  lengths  at  different  times, 
explain  the  different  degrees  of  loudness  and  the  varying  pitch  of 
the  voice. 

If  the  voice  thus  produced  comes  out  through  the  mouth  held  well 
open,  a  class  of  sounds  is  formed  which  we  call  vowel  sounds. 

But  if  the  voice  is  held  back  or  obstructed  by  the  palate,  tongue, 
teeth,  or  lips,  one  kind  of  the  sounds  called  consonant  sounds  is  made. 
If  the  breath  is  driven  out  without  voice,  and  is  held  back  by  these 
same  parts  of  the  mouth,  the  other  kind  of  consonant  sounds  is 
formed. 

The  written  word  is  made  up  of  characters,  or  letters,  which  repre- 
sent to  the  eye  these  sounds  that  address  the  ear. 

You  are  now  prepared  to  understand  us  when  we  say  that  vowels 
are  the  letters  that  stand  for  the  open  sounds  of  the  voice,  and 
that  consonants  are  the  letters  that  stand  for  the  sounds  made 
by  the  obstructed,  voice  and  the  obstructed  breath. 

The  alphabet  of  a  language  is  a  complete  list  of  its  letters.  A  per- 
fect alphabet  would  have  one  letter  for  each  sound,  and  only  one. 

Our  alphabet  is  imperfect  in  at  least  these  three  ways  : — 

1.  Some  of  the  letters  are  superfluous  ;  c  stands  for  the  sound  of  5 
or  of  h,  as  in  city  and  can  ;  q  has  the  sound  of  h,  as  in  quit ;  and  x 
that  of  Jcs,  gz,  or  z,  as  in  expel,  exist,  and  Xenophon. 

2.  Combinations  of  letters  sometimes  represent  single  sounds  ;  as, 
th  in  thine,  th  in  thin,  ng  in  sing,  and  sh  in  shut. 

8.  Some  letters  stand  each  for  many  sounds.  Twenty-three  letters 
represent  over  forty  sounds.  Every  vowel  does  more  than  single 
duty  ;  e  stands  for  two  sounds,  as  in  mete  and  met ;  i  for  two,  as  in 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


pine  and  pin  ;  o  for  three,  as  in  note,  ?iot,  and  move ;  u  for  four,  as 
in  tube,  tub,  full,  and  fur  ;  a  for  six,  as  in  fate,  fat,  far,  fall,  fast, 
and  fare. 

W  is  a  vowel  when  it  unites  with  a  preceding  vowel  to  represent  a 
vowel  sound,  and  y  is  a  vowel  when  it  has  the  sound  of  i,  as  in  now, 
hy,  hoy,  newly.  W  and  y  are  consonants  at  the  beginning  of  a  word 
or  syllable. 

The  various  sounds  of  the  several  vowels  and  even  of  the  same 
vowel  are  caused  by  the  different  shapes  which  the  mouth  assumes. 
These  changes  in  its  cavity  produce,  also,  the  two  sounds  that  unite 
in  each  of  the  compounds,  ou,  oi,  ew,  and  in  the  alphabetic  i  and  a. 

1.  2. 

Vocal  Consonants.     Aspirates. 

b P 

d t 

g k 

h 


j ch 

1 


1. 

2. 

Vocal  Consonants. 

Aspirates. 

th 

th 

(in  thine) 

(in  thin) 

V 

f 

w — 

y 

z  (in  zone) . 

s 

z  (in  azure) 

sh 

The  consonants  in  column  1  represent  the  sounds  made  by  the 
obstructed  voice  ;  those  in  column  2,  except  h  (which  represents  a 
mere  forcible  breathing),  represent  those  made  by  the  obstructed 
breath. 

The  letters  are  mostly  in  pairs.  Now  note  that  the  tongue,  teeth, 
lips,  and  palate  are  placed  in  the  same  relative  position  to  make  the 
sounds  of  both  letters  in  any  pair.  The  difference  in  the  sounds  of 
the  letters  of  any  pair  is  simply  this  :  there  is  voice  in  the  sounds 
of  the  letters  in  column  1,  and  only  whisper  in  those  of  column  3. 


Analysis  and  the  Diagram.  7' 


Give  the  sound  of  any  letter  in  column  1,  as  b,  g,  v,  and  the  last  or- 
vanishing  part  of  it  is  the  sound  of  the  other  letter  of  the  pair. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Write  these  letters  on  the  board,  as  above,  and  drill  the  pupils - 
on  the  sounds  till  they  can  see  and  make  these  distinctions.  Drill  them  on  the 
vowels  also. 

In  closing  this  talk  vrith  you,  we  wish  to  emphasize  one  point 
brought  before  you.  Here  is  a  pencil,  a  real  thing  ;  we  carry  in 
memory  a  picture  of  the  pencil,  which  we  call  an  idea  ;  and  there 
are  the  two  words  naming  this  idea,  the  spoken  and  the  written.. 
Learn  to  distinguish  clearly  these  four  things. 

To  THE  Teacher.— In  reviewing  these  three  Lessons,  put  particular  emphasis  ons 
Lesson  2. 


LESSON    4. 

ANALYSIS   AND  THE    DIAGRAM. 

To  THE  Teacher.— If  the  pupils  have  been  through  "  Graded  Lessons  "  or  itfii 
equivalent,  some  of  the  following  Lessons  may  be  passed  over  rapidly. 

DEFINITION.— A  Sentence  is  the  expression  of  a  thought 
in  words. 

Direction. — Analyze  the  following  sentences : — 

Model. — Spiders  spin.  Why  is  this  a  sentence  ?  Ans. — Because; 
it  expresses  a  thought.  Of  what  is  something  thought  ?  Ans, — 
♦Spiders.     Which  word  tells  what  is  thought  ?    Ans. — *Spin. 

1.  Tides  ebb.  4.  Carbon  burns.  7.  Leaves  tremble. 

2.  Liquids  flow.  5.  Iron  melts.  8.  Worms  crawl. 

3.  Steam  expands.       6.  Powder  explodes.        9.  Hares  leap. 

♦  The  word  spiders,  standing  in  Roman,  names  our  idea  of  the  real  thing ;  spin, 
used  merely  as  a  word,  is  in  Italics.  This  use  of  Italics  the  teacher  and  the  pupil. will- 
please  note  here  and  elsewhere. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


In  each  of  these  sentences  there  are,  as  you  have 
learned,  two  parts — the  Subject  and  the  Predicate. 

DEFINITION.— The  Subject  of  a  sentence  names  that  of 
which  something  is  thought. 

DEFINITION.— The  Predicate  of  a  sentence  tells  what  is 
thought. 

DEFINITION.— The  Analysis  of  a  sentence  is  the  sepa- 
ration of  it  into  its  parts. 

Direction. — Analyze  these  sentences: — 

Model. — Beavers  build.  This  is  a  sentence  because  it  expresses 
a  thought.  Beavers  is  the  subject  because  it  names  that  of  which 
something  is  thought  ;  build  is  the  predicate  because  it  tells  what  is 
thought.* 

1.  Squirrels  climb.  4.  Heralds  proclaim.  7.  Corn  ripens. 

2.  Blood  circulates.       5.  Apes  chatter.  8.  Birds  twitter. 

3.  Muscles  tire.  6.  Branches  wave.  9.  Hearts  throb. 

Explanation. — Draw  a  heavy  line  and  divide  it  into  two  parts.  Let 
the  first  part  represent  the  subject  of  a  sentence  ;  the  second,  the  predi- 
cate. 

If  you  write  a  word  over  the  first  part,  you  will  understand  that  this 
word  is  the  subject  of  a  sentence.  If  you  write  a  word  over  the  second 
part,  you  will  understand  tiiat  this  word  is  the  predicate  of  a  sentence. 

Love         ,     conquers 


4- 

Tou  see,  by  looking  at  this  figure,  that  Love  conquers  is  a  sentence  ;  that 
love  is  the  subject,  and  conquers  the  predicate. 


*  When  pupils  are  familiar  with  the  definitions,  let  the  form  of  analysis  be  varied. 
The  reasons  may  be  made  more  specific.  Here  and  elsewhere  avoid  mechanical 
repetition. 


Composition— Subject  and  Predicate. 


9 


Such  figures,  made  up  of  straight  lines,  we  call  Dia^ 
grams. 

DEFINITION.— A  Diagram  is  a  picture  of  tlie  offices  and 
the  relations  of  the  different  parts  of  a  sentence. 

Direction. — Analyze  these  sentences: — 


1.  Frogs  croak. 

2.  Hens  sit. 

3.  Sheep  bleat. 

4.  Cows  low. 


5.  Flies  buzz. 

6.  Sap  ascends. 

7.  Study  pays. 

8.  Buds  swell. 


9.  Books  aid. 

10.  Noise  disturbs. 

11.  Hope  strengthens, 
13.  Cocks  crow. 


LESSON    5. 

COMPOSITION-SUBJECT    AND    PREDICATE. 

CAPITAL  LETTER— RULE.— The  first  word  of  every  sen- 
tence  must  begin  with  a  capital  letter, 

PERIOD— RULE.— A  period  must  be  placed  after  every  sen- 
tence that  simply  affirms,  denies,  or  commands. 

Direction. — Construct  sentences  by  supplying  a  subject  to  each 
of  the  following  predicates : — 

Ask  yourselves  the  questions,  What  tarnishes  ?  Who  sailed,  con- 
quered, etc.  ? 

1.  tarnishes.  6.  sailed. 

2.  capsize.  7.  descends. 

3.  radiates.  8.  glisten. 

4.  sentence.  9.  absorb. 

5.  careen.  10.  corrode. 


11.   conquered. 

13.  surrendered. 

13.  refines. 

14.  gurgle. 

15.  murmur. 


Direction. — Construct  sentences  by  supplying  a  predicate  to  each 
of  the  following  subjects : — 


10 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Ask  yourselves  the 

question,  Glycerine  does  what  ? 

1.  Glycerine . 

9.  Tempests . 

17.  Merchants  — 

.2.  Yankees . 

10.  Seeds . 

3.  Tyrants . 

11.  Heat . 

19.  Conscience  - 

•4.  Pendulums . 

12.  Philosophers . 

,    20.  Congress 

5.  Caesar . 

13.  Bubbles . 

21.  Life . 

■6.  Labor . 

14.  Darkness . 

22.  Vapors . 

7.  Chalk . 

15.  Wax . 

23.  Music . 

S.  Nature . 

16.  Reptiles . 

24.  Pitch . 

To  THE  Teacheb. — This  exercise  may  profitably  be  extended  by  supplying  £ieveial 
.anbjectB  to  each  predicate,  and  several  predicates  to  each  subject. 


LESSON    6. 

ANALYSIS. 

The  predicate  sometimes  contains  more  than  one  word. 
Direction. — Analyze  as  in  Lesson  4. 


1.  Moisture  is  exhaled. 
S.  Conclusions  are  drawn. 
S.  Industry  will  enrich. 

4.  Stars  have  disappeared. 

5.  Twilight  is  falling. 

6.  Leaves  are  turning. 

7.  Sirius  has  appeared. 


11.  Nuisances  should  be  abated. 

12.  Jerusalem  was  destroyed. 

13.  Light  can  be  reflected. 

14.  Rain  must  have  fallen. 

15.  Planets  have  been  discovered. 

16.  Palaces  shall  crumble. 

17.  Storms  may  be  gathering. 


8.  Constantinople  had  been  cap-  18.  Essex  might  have  been  saved. 

tured.  19.  Caesar  could  have  been  crowned. 

9.  Electricity  has  been  harnessed.  20.  Inventors  may  be  encouraged. 
10.  Tempests  have  been  raging. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  of  each 
sentence  m  Lessons  12  and  17. 


Composition— Subject  and  Predicate. 


II 


Look  first  for  the  word  that  asserts,  and  then,  by  putting  who  or 
what  before  this  predicate,  the  subject  may  easily  be  found. 

To  THB  Teacher.— Let  this  exercise  be  continued  till  the  pupils  can  readily  point: 
out  the  subject  and  the  predicate  in  ordinary  simple  sentences. 

When  this  can  be  done  promptly,  the  first  and  most  important  step  in  analysis  will 
have  been  taken. 


LESSON     7. 

COMPOSITION-SUBJECT  AND   PREDICATE. 

Direction. — Make  at  least  ten  good  sentences  out  of  the  words  irir 
the  three  columns  following : — 

The  helping  words  in  column  2  must  be  prefixed  to  words  in  column 
8  in  order  to  make  complete  predicates.     Analyze  your  sentences. 


1 

2 

3 

Arts 

is 

progressing. 

Allen 

was 

tested. 

Life 

are 

command. 

Theories 

will 

prolonged. 

Science 

would 

released. 

Truth 

were 

falling. 

Shadows 

maybe 

burned. 

Moscow 

has  been 

measured. 

Raleigh 

have  been 

prevail. 

Quantity 

should  have  been 

lost. 

Review  Questions. 

What  is  language  proper  ?  "What  is  English  grammar  ?  What  is  a 
sentence  ?  What  are  its  two  parts  ?  What  is  the  subject  of  a  sen- 
tence ?  The  predicate  of  a  sentence  ?  The  analysis  of  a  sentence  ? 
What  is  a  diagram  ?    What  rule  has  been  given  for  the  use  of  capital 


12  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


letters  ?    For  the  period  ?    May  the  predicate  contain  more  than  one 
word  ?    Illustrate. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Introduce  the  class  to  the  Parts  of  Speech  before  the  close  of  this 
recitation.     See  "Introductory  Hints "  below. 


LESSON    8. 

CLASSES    OF    WORDS. 

NOUNS. 

Introductory  Hints. — We  have  now  reached  the  point  where  we 
must  classify  the  words  of  our  language.  But  we  are  appalled  by 
their  number.  If  we  must  learn  all  about  the  forms  and  the  uses  of 
a  hundred  thousand  words  by  studying  these  words  one  by  one,  we 
shall  die  ignorant  of  English  grammar. 

But  may  we  not  deal  with  words  as  we  do  with  plants  ?  If  we  had 
to  study  and  name  each  leaf  and  stem  and  flower,  taken  singly,  we 
should  never  master  the  botany  even  of  our  garden-plats. 

But  God  has  made  things  to  resemble  one  another  and  to  differ 
from  one  another  ;  and,  as  he  has  given  us  the  power  to  detect  resem- 
blances and  differences,  we  are  able  to  group  things  that  have  like 
qualities. 

From  certain  likenesses  in  form  and  in  structure,  we  put  certain 
flowers  together  and  call  them  roses  ;  from  other  likenesses,  we  get 
another  class  called  lilies  ;  from  others  still,  violets.  Just  so  we 
classify  trees  and  get  the  oak,  the  elm,  the  maple,  etc. 

The  myriad  objects  of  nature  fall  into  comparatively  few  classes. 
Studying  each  class,  we  learn  all  we  need  to  know  of  every  object 
in  it. 

From  their  likenesses,  though  not  in  form,  we  classify  words.  We 
group  them  according  to  their  similarities  in  use,  or  office,  in  the 
sentence.  Sorting  them  thus,  we  find  that  they  all  fall  into  eight 
classes,  which  we  call  Parts  of  Speech. 


Classes  of  Words. 


13 


We  find  that  many  words  name  things — are  the  names  of  things  of 
which  we  can  think  and  speak.  These  we  place  in  one  class  and  call 
them  Nouns  (Latin  nomen,  a  name,  a  noun). 

PRONOUNS. 

Without  the  little  words  which  we  shall  italicize,  it  would  be  diffi- 
cult for  one  stranger  to  ask  another,  "Can  you  tell  me  wJio  is  the 
postmaster  at  B  ?  "  The  one  would  not  know  what  name  to  use  instead 
of  you,  the  other  would  not  recognize  the  name  in  the  place  of  me,  and 
both  would  be  puzzled  to  find  a  substitute  for  wJio. 

I,  you,  my,  me,  what,  we,  it,  he,  who,  him,  she,  them,  and  other 
words  are  used  in  place  of  nouns,  and  are,  therefore,  called  Pro- 
nouns (Lat.  pro,  for,  and  nomen,  a  noun). 

By  means  of  these  handy  little  words  we  can  represent  any  or  every 
object  in  existence.  We  could  hardly  speak  or  write  without  them 
now,  they  so  frequently  shorten  the  expression  and  prevent  confusion 
and  repetition.  

DEFINITION.— A  Koun  is  the  name  of  anything. 
DEFINITION.— A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun. 

The  principal  office  of  nouns  is  to  name  the  things  of 
which  we  say,  or  assert,  something  in  the  sentence. 

Direction. — Write,  according  to  the  model,  the  names  of  things 
that  can  hum,  grow,  melt,  love,  roar,  or  revolve. 


I.— 

Nouns. 
Wood      ^ 
Paper 
Oil 

Remark. — Notice 
that,  when  the  sub- 
ject adds  5  or  es  to 

Houses 

Coal 

Leaves 

-  burn  or 

burns. 

denote  more  than 
one,  the  predicate 
does  not  take  s. 
Note    how  it  would 

Matches 

sound  if  both  should 

Clothes    , 

add  s. 

:14  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Every  subject  of  a  sentence  is  a  noun,  or  some  word 
•or  words  used  as  a  noun.  But  not  every  noun  in  a  sen- 
tence is  a  subject. 

Direction. — Select  and  write  all  the  nouns  and  pronouns,  whether 
subjects  or  not,  in  the  sentences  given  in  Lesson  18, 
In  writing  them  observe  the  following  rules : — 

CAPITAL  LETTER  —  RULE.  —  2*ro2>er,  or  individual^ 
mames  and  tvords  derived  from  thein  begin  with  capital 
letters. 

PERIOD  and  CAPITAL  LETTER— RULE.— ^66rcviafion« 
generally  begin  with  capital  letters  and  are  always  followed 
by  the  period. 


LESSON    9. 

CAPITAL    LETTERS. 

Direction. — From  the  following  words  select  and  write  in  one  col" 
umn  those  names  that  distinguish  individual  things  from  others  of 
the  same  class,  and  in  another  column  those  words  that  are  derived 
from,  individual  names  : — 

Observe  Rule  1,  Lesson  8. 

ohio,  state,  Chicago,  france,  bostonian,  country,  england,  boston, 
milton,  river,  girl,  mary,  hudson,  william,  britain,  miltonic,  city, 
englishman,  messiah,  platonic,  american,  deity,  bible,  book,  plato, 
christian,  broadway,  america,  jehovah,  british,  easter,  europe,  man, 
scriptures,  god. 

Direction. —  Write  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week  and  the 
months  of  the  year,  beginning  each  with  a  capital  letter ;  and  write 
the  names  of  the  seasons  without  capital  letters. 


Capital  Letters.  15 


Remember  that,  when  a  *class  name  and  a  distinguish- 
ing word  combine  to  make  one  individual  name,  each  word 
begins  with  a  capital  letter  ;  as,  Jersey  City. 

But,  when  the  distinguishing  word  can  by  itself  be  re- 
garded as  a  complete  name,  the  class  name  begins  with  a 
small  letter ;  as,  river  Rhine. 

Examples. — Long  Island,  Good  Friday,  Mount  Vernon,  Suspen- 
sion Bridge,  New  York  city.  Harper's  Ferry,  Cape  May,  Bunker  Hill, 
Red  River,  Lake  Erie,  General  Jackson,  White  Mountains,  river 
Thames,  Astor  House,  steamer  Drew,  North  Pole. 

Direction. — Write  these  words,  using  capital  letters  when  needed : — 

Ohio  river,  professor  huxley,  president  adams,  doctor  brown,  din- 
ton  county,  Westchester  county,  colonel  burr,  secretary  stanton,  lake 
george,  green  mountains,  white  sea,  cape  cod,  delaware  bay,  atlantic 
ocean,  united  states,  rhode  island. 

Remember  that,  when  an  individual  name  is  made  up 
of  a  class  name,  the  word  of,  and  a  distinguishing  word, 
the  class  name  and  the  distinguishing  word  should  each 
begin  with  a  capital  letter  ;  as,  Gulf  of  Mexico.  But,  when 
the  distinguishing  word  can  by  itself  be  regarded  as  a 
complete  name,  the  class  name  should  begin  with  a  small 
letter;  as,  city  of  Lo7ido7i.\ 

*  Dead  Sea  is  composed  of  the  class  name  sea,  which  applies  to  all  seas,  and  the 
word  Head,  which  distinguishes  one  sea  from  all  others. 

+  The  need  of  some  definite  instruction  to  save  the  young  writer  from  hesitation 
and  confusion  in  the  use  of  capitals  is  evident  from  the  following  variety  of  forms 
now  in  use  :  City  of  New  York,  city  of  New  York,  New  York  City,  New  York  city. 
New  York  State,  New  York  state.  Fourth  Avenue,  Fourth  avenue.  Grand  Street^ 


16  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. —  Write  these  words,  using  capital  letters  when  needed : — 
city  of  atlanta,  isle  of  man,  straits  of  dover,  state  of  Vermont,  isth- 
mus of  darien,  sea  of  galilee,  queen  of  england,  bay  of  naples,  empire 
of  china. 

Remember  that,  when  a  compound  name  is  made  up  of 
two  or  more  distinguishing  words,  as,  Henry  Clay,  John 
Stuart  Mill,  each  word  begins  with  a  capital  letter. 

Direction. —  Write  these  words,  using  capital  letters  when  needed  : — 

great  britain,  lower  California,  south  Carolina,  daniel  webster,  new 
england,  Oliver  wendell  holmes,  north  america,  new  Orleans,  jaraes 
russell  lowell,  british  america. 

Remember  that,  in  writing  the  titles  of  booKs-,  essays. 

Grand  street,  Grand-«^.,  Atlantic  Ocean,  Atlantic  ocean,  Mediterranean  Sea,  Mediter- 
ranean sea.  Kings  County,  Kings  county,  etc. 

The  usage  of  newspapers  and  of  text-books  on  geography  would  probably  favor  the 
writing  of  the  class  names  in  the  examples  above  with  initial  capitals  ;  but  we  find  in. 
the  most  carefully  printed  books  and  periodicals  a  tendency  to  favor  small  letters  in 
such  cases. 

In  the  superscription  of  letters,  such  words  as  street,  city,  and  county  begin  with 
capitals. 

Usage  certainly  favors  small  initials  for  the  following  italicized  words  :  river  Rhine, 
Catskill  village,  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  river's.  If  river  and  village,  in  the  preced- 
ing examples,  are  not  essential  parts  of  the  individual  names,  why  should  river,  ocean, 
and  county,  in  Hudson  river.  Pacific  ocean,  Queens  ccninty,  be  treated  differently  ? 
We  often  say  the  Hudson,  the  Paciflc,  Queens,  without  adding  the  explanatory  class 
name. 

The  principle  we  suggest  may  be  in  advance  of  common  usage ;  but  it  is  in  the 
line  of  progress,  and  it  tends  to  uniformity  of  practice  and  to  an  improved  appearance 
of  the  page.    About  a  century  ago  every  noun  began  with  a  capital  letter. 

The  American  Cyclopaedia  takes  a  position  still  further  in  advance,  as  illustrated  in 
the  following  :  Red  river.  Black  sea,  gxdf  of  Mexico,  Rocky  mmintains.  In  the  En- 
cyclopaedia Britannica  (Little,  Brown,  &  Co.,  9th  ed.)  we  find  Connecticut  river, 
Madison  county,  etc.,  quite  uniformly  ;  but  we  find  Gulf  of  Mexico,  Pacific  Ocean,  etc. 


Abbreviations.  17 


poems,  plays,  etc.,  and  the  names  of  the  Deity,  only  the 
chief   words   begin   with  capital  letters ;   as.  Decline  and 
Fall  of  the  Eoman  Empire,  Supreme  Being,  Paradise  Lost, 
the  Holy  One  of  Israel. 
Direction. —  Write  these  words,  using  capital  letters  when  needed  : — 

declaration  of  independence,  clarendon's  history  of  the  great  rebell- 
ion, Webster's  reply  to  hayne,  pilgrim's  progress,  Johnson's  lives  of  the 
poets,  son  of  man,  the  most  high,  dombey  and  son,  tent  on  the  beach, 
bancroft's  history  of  the  united  states. 

Direction. — Write  these  miscellaneous  names,  using  capital  letters 
tvhen  needed : — 

erie  canal,  governor  tilden,  napoleon  bonaparte,  cape  of  good  hope, 
pope's  essay  on  criticism,  massachusetts  bay,  city  of  boston,  continent 
of  america,  new  testament,  goldsmith's  she  stoops  to  conquer,  milton's 
hymn  on  the  nativity,  Indian  ocean,  cape  cod  bay,  ply  mouth  rock, 
anderson's  history  of  the  united  states,  mount  Washington,  english 
channel,  the  holy  spirit,  new  york  central  railroad,  old  world,  long 
island  sound,  flatbush  village. 


LESSON      10. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

Direction. — Some  words  occur  frequently,  and  for  convenience  may 
he  abbreviated  in  writing.  Observing  Rule  3,  Lesson  8,  abbreviate 
these  words  by  writing  the  first  five  letters : — 

Thursday  and  lieutenant. 

These  by  writing  the  first  four  letters  : — 

Connecticut,  captain,  Colorado,  Kansas,  Massachusetts,  Michigan, 


18  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Minnesota,  Mississippi,  Nebraska,  Oregon,  professor,  president,  Ten- 
nessee, and  Tuesday. 

These  by  writing  the  first  three  letters : — 

Alabama,  answer,  Arkansas,  California,  colonel,  Delaware,  Eng- 
land, esquire,  Friday,  general,  George,  governor,  honorable,  Illinois, 
Indiana,  major,  Monday,  Nevada,  reverend,  Saturday,  secretary,  Sun- 
day, Texas,  Wednesday,  Wisconsin,  and  the  names  of  the  months  ex- 
cept May,  June,  and  July. 

These  hy  writing  the  first  two  letters : — 

Company,  county,  credit,  example,  and  idem  (the  same). 

These  hy  writing  the  first  letter : — 

East,  north,  south,  and  west.* 

These  by  writing  the  first  and  the  last  letter : — 

Doctor,  debtor,  Georgia,  junior,  Kentucky,  Louisiana,  Maine,  Mary- 
land, Master,  Mister,  numero  (number),  Pennsylvania,  saint,  street, 
Vermont,  and  Virginia.  "  ^rf^ 

These  by  writing  the  first  letter  of  each  word  of  the  compound  with 
a  period  after  each  letter : — 

Artium  baccalaureus  (bachelor  of  arts),  anno  Domini  (in  the  year  of 
our  Lord),  artium  magister  (master  of  arts),  ante  meridiem  (before 
noon),  before  Christ,  collect  on  delivery.  District  (of)  Columbia,  divini- 
tatis  doctor  (doctor  of  divinity),  member  (of)  Congress,  medicinaB  doctor 
(doctor  of  medicine),  member  (of)  Parliament,  North  America,  North 
Carolina,  New  Hampshire,  New  Jersey,  New  York,  postmaster,  post 
meridiem  (afternoon),  post-office,  Rhode  Island,  South  Carolina,  and 
United  States. 

*  When  theee  words  refer  to  sections  of  the  country,  they  should  begin  with  capitals. 


Abbreviations. 


19 


Direction. — The  following  abbreviations  and  those  you  have  made 
should  be  committed  to  memory : — 


Acct.  or  acct., 
Bbl.  or  bbl., 
Chas., 
Fla., 
*LL.  D., 

Messrs., 

Mme., 

Mo., 

Mrs., 

Mts., 
Ph.  D., 

Reed., 
Robt., 
Supt., 
Thos.. 


account, 
barrel. 
Charles. 
Florida, 
legum  doctor 

(doctor  of  laws), 
messieurs 

(gentlemen), 
madarae. 
Missouri, 
(pronounced  missis) 

mistress, 
mountains, 
philosophise  doctor 
(doctor  of  philosophy),  pp. 
received. 
Robert. 

superintendent. 
Thomas. 

Remark. — In  this  Lesson  we  have  given  the  abbreviations  of  the 
states  as  now  regulated  by  the  *'U.  S.  Official  Postal  Guide."  In 
the  **  Guide  "  Iowa  and  Ohio  are  not  abbreviated.  They  are,  how- 
ever, frequently  abbreviated  thus  :  Iowa,  la.  or  lo.;  Ohio,  O. 

The  similarity,  when  hurriedly  written,  of  the  abbreviations  Cal., 
Col.;  la.,  lo.;  Neb.,  Nev.;  Penn.,  Tenrh.,  etc.,  has  led  to  much  con- 
fusion. 


bu., 

bushel. 

do.. 

ditto  (the  same). 

doz., 

dozen.                        [pie). 

e.  g., 

exempli  gratia  (for  exam- 

etc., 

et  caetera  (and  others). 

ft., 

foot,  feet. 

hhd.. 

hogshead. 

hdkf. 

,  handkerchief. 

i.e.. 

id  est  (that  is). 

1., 

line. 

11., 

lines. 

lb., 

libra  (pound). 

oz.. 

ounce. 

Pv 

page. 

PP-> 

pages. 

qt., 

quart. 

vs.. 

versus  (against). 

viz.. 

videlicet  (namely). 

yd., 

yard. 

*  The  doubling  of  the  I  in  II.  and  in  LL.  Z>.,  and  of  p  in  pp.,  with  no  period 
between  the  letters,  comes  from  pluralizing  the  nouns  line,  lex,  and  page. 


20  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    11. 

VERBS. 


Introductory  Hints. — We  told  you  in  Lesson  8  how,  by  noticing- 
the  essential  likenesses  in  things  and  grouping  the  things  thus  alike, 
we  could  throw  the  countless  objects  around  us  into  comparatively  few 
classes. 

We  began  to  classify  words  according  to  their  use,  or  office,  in  the 
sentence  ;  we  found  one  class  of  words  that  name  things,  and  we 
called  them  nouns. 

But  in  all  the  sentences  given  you,  we  have  had  to  use  another  class 
of  words.  These  words,  you  notice,  tell  what  the  things  do,  or  assert 
that  they  are,  or  exist. 

When  we  say  Clocks  tick,  tick  is  not  the  name  of  anything  ;  it  tells 
what  clocks  do  ;  it  asserts  action. 

When  we  say  Clocks  are,  or  There  are  clocks,  are  is  not  the  name  of 
anything,  nor  does  it  tell  what  clocks  do  ;  it  simply  asserts  existence, 
or  being. 

When  we  say  Clocks  Jiang,  stand,  last,  lie,  or  remain,  these  words 
hang,  stand,  last,  etc.,  do  not  name  anything,  nor  do  they  tell  that 
clocks  act  or  simply  exist  ;  they  tell  the  condition,  or  state,  in  which, 
clocks  are,  or  exist  ;  that  is,  they  assert  state  of  being. 

All  words  that  assert  action,  being,  or  state  of  being,  we  call  Verbs 
(Lat.  verbum,  a  word).  The  name  was  given  to  this  class  because  it 
was  thought  that  they  were  the  most  important  words  in  the  sentence. 

Give  several  verbs  that  assert  action.  Give  some  that  assert  being, 
and  some  that  assert  state  of  being. 


DEFINITION.— A  Verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  action,  being", 
or  state  of  being. 

There  are,  however,  two  forms  of  the  verb,  the  parti- 


Verbs. 


21 


ciple  and  the  infinitive  (see  Lessons  37  and  40),  that  express 
action,  being,  or  state  of  being,  without  asserting  it. 

Direction. —  Write   after   each  of   the  following  nouns  as  many 
appropriate  verbs  as  you  can  thinJc  of: — 

Let  some  express  being  and  some  express  state  of  being. 

Model. —    Noun. 


Remark. — Notice  that  the 
simple  form  of  the  verb,  as, 
burn,  melt,  scorch,  adds  s  or 
es  when  its  subject  noun 
names  but  one  thing. 


Lawyers,  mills,  horses,  books,  education,  birds,  mind. 

A  verb  may  consist  of  two,  three,  or  even  four  words ; 
as,  is  learning,  may  he  learned,  could  have  been  learned."^ 

Direction. —  Unite  the  words  in  columns  2  and  3  below,  and  append 
the  verbs  thus  formed  to  the  nouns  and  pronouns  in  column  1  so  as 
to  make  good  sentences: — 

Remark. — Notice  that  is,  was,  and  has  are  used  with  nouns  naming 
one  thing,  and  with  the  pronouns  he,  she,  and  it ;  and  that  are,  were, 
and  have  are  used  with  nouns  naming  more  than  one  thing,  and  with 
the  pronouns  we,  you,  and  they.  I  may  be  used  with  am,  was,  and 
have. 


'  burns. 

melt. 

scorches. 

Fire 

keep. 

(or)   - 

spreads. 

Fires 

glow. 

rages. 

heat. 

.exists. 

*  Such  groups  of  words  are  sometimes  called  verb-phrases.    For  definition  of 
irase,  see  Lesson  17. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


1 

2 

3 

Words 

am 

confused. 

Cotton 

is 

exported. 

Sugar 

are 

refined. 

Air 
Teas 

was 

coined, 
delivered. 

Speeches 
I,  we,  you 

were 
has  been 

weighed, 
imported. 

He,  she,  it, 

they 

have  been 

transferred 

As  verbs  are  the  only  words  that  assert,  every  predicate 
must  be  a  verb,  or  must  contain  a  verb. 

Naming  the  class  to  which  a  word  belongs  is  the  first 
step  in  parsing. 

Direction. — Parse  five  of  the  sentences  you  have  written. 
Model. — Poland  was  dismembered. 

Parsing. — Poland  is  a  noun  because ;  was  dismembered  is  a 

verb  because  it  asserts  action. 


LESSON     12. 


MODIFIED   SUBJECT. 


ADJECTIVES. 


Introductory  Hints. — The  subject  noun  and  the  predicate  verb 
are  not  always  or  often  the  whole  of  the  structure  that  we  call  the  sen- 
tence, though  they  are  the  underlying  timbers  that  support  the  rest  of 
the  verbal  bridge.     Other  words  may  be  built  upon  them. 

We  learned  in  Lesson  8  that  things  resemble  one  another  and  differ 
from  one  another.  They  resemble  and  they  differ  in  what  we  call  their 
qualities.     Things  are  alike  whose  qualities  are  the  same,  as,  two- 


Modified  Subjecxo  2d 


oranges  having  the  same  color,  taste,  and  odor.  Things  are  unlika, 
as,  an  orange  and  an  apple,  whose  qualities  are  diiferent. 

It  is  by  their  qualities,  then,  that  we  know  things  and  group  them. 

Ripe  apples  are  healthful.  Unripe  apples  are  hurtful.  In  these 
two  sentences  we  have  the  same  word  apples  to  name  the  same  general 
class  of  things  ;  but  the  prefixed  words  ripe  and  unripe,  marking  oppo- 
site qualities  in  the  apples,  separate  the  apples  into  two  kinds — the 
ripe  ones  and  the  unripe  ones. 

These  prefixed  words  ripe  and  unripe,  then,  limit  the  word  apples 
in  its  scope  ;  ripe  apples  or  unripe  apples  applies  to  fewer  things  than 
apples  alone  applies  to. 

If  we  say  the,  this,  that  apple,  or  an,  no  apple,  or  some,  many,  eight 
apples,  we  do  not  mark  any  quality  of  the  fruit ;  but  the,  this,  or  that 
points  out  a  particular  apple,  and  limits  the  word  apple  to  the  one 
pointed  out  ;  and  an,  7io,  some,  many,  or  eight  limits  the  word  in 
respect  to  the  number  of  apples  that  it  denotes. 

These  and  all  such  words  as  by  marking  quality,  by  pointing  out, 
or  by  specifying  number  or  quantity  limit  the  scope  or  add  to  th** 
meaning  of  the  noun,  modify  it,  and  are  called  Modifiers. 

In  the  sentence  above,  apples  is  the  Simple  Subject  and  ripe 
apples  is  the  Modified  Subject. 

Words  that  modify  nouns  and  pronouns  are  called  Adjectives 
(Lat.  ad,  to,  and  Jacere,  to  throw). 


DEFINITION.— A  Modifier  is  a  word  or  a  group  of  words 
joined  to  some  part  of  the  sentence  to  qualify  or  limit  the 
meaning. 

The  Subject  with  its  Modifiers  is  called  the  Modified 
Subject,  or  Logical  Subject. 

DEFINITION.— An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a 
noun  or  a  pronoun. 


24  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Analysis  and    Parsing. 

1.  The  cold  November  rain  is  falling. 

is  falling  Explanation.  —  The   two    lines   shadea 

alike  and  placed  uppermost  stand  for  the  sub- 
ject and  the  predicate,  and  show  that  these 
are  of  the  same  rank,  and  are  the  principal 
parts  of  the    sentence.    The    lighter   lines, 

placed  under  and  joined  to  the  subject  line,  stand  for  the  less  important 

parts,  the  modifiers,  and  show  what  is  modified.* 

To  THE  Teacher.— While  we,  from  experience,  are  clear  in  the  belief  that  dia 
grams  are  very  helpful  in  the  analyeis  of  sentences,  we  wish  to  say  that  the  work 
required  in  this  book  can  all  be  done  without  resorting  to  these  figures.  If  some  other 
form,  or  no  form,  of  written  analysis  is  preferred,  our  diagrams  can  be  omitted  without 
break  or  confusion. 

When  diagrams  are  used,  only  the  teacher  can  determine  how  many  shall  be  required 
in  any  one  Lesson,  and  how  soon  the  pupil  may  dispense  with  their  aid  altogether. 

Oral  Analysis. — (Here  and  hereafter  we  shall  omit  from  the  oral 
analysis  and  parsing  whatever  has  been  provided  for  in  previous 
Lessons.)  The,  cold,  and  November  are  modifiers  of  the  subject. 
The  cold  November  rain  is  the  modified  subject. 

To  THE  Teacher.— While  in  these  "models"  we  wish  to  avoid  repetition,  we 
should  require  of  the  pupils  full  forms  of  oral  analysis  for  at  least  some  of  the  sen- 
tences in  every  Lesson. 

Parsing. — The,  cold,  and  November  are  adjectives  modifying  rain 
— cold  and  November  expressing  quality,  and  the  pointing  out. 

*  To  the  Teacher.— When  several  adjectives  are  joined  to  one  noun,  each  adjective 
does  not  always  modify  the  unlimited  noun.    That  old  wooden  house  was  burned. 
Here  wooden  modifies  hxmse,  old  modifies  house  limited  by  wooden,  and  that  modifies 
Jumse  limited  by  old  and  wooden.    This  may  be  illustrated  in  the 
diagram  by  numbering  the  modifiers  in  the  order  of  their  rank,         \j  \     \  " 
thus:—  *    ^' 

Adverbs,  and  both  phrase  and  clause  modifiers  often  differ  in  rank  in  the  same  way. 
If  the  pupils  are  able  to  see  these  distinctions,  it  will  be  well  to  have  them  made 
in  the  analysis,  as  they  often  determine  the  punctuation  and  the  arrangement.  See 
Lessons  13  and  21 


Composition— Adjectives.  26 


2.  The  great  Spanish  Armada  was  destroyed. 

3.  A  free  people  should  be  educated. 

4.  The  old  Liberty  Bell  was  rung. 

5.  The  famous  Alexandrian  library  was  burned. 

6.  The  odious  Stamp  Act  was  repealed. 

7.  Every  intelligent  American  citizen  should  vote. 

8.  The  long  Hoosac  Tunnel  is  completed. 

9.  I  alone  should  suffer. 

10.  All  nature  rejoices. 

11.  Five  large,  ripe,  luscious,  mellow  apples  were  picked. 

12.  The  melancholy  autumn  days  have  come. 

13.  A  poor  old  wounded  soldier  returned. 

14.  The  oppressed  Russian  serfs  have  been  freed. 

15.  Immense  suspension  bridges  have  been  built. 


LESSON    13. 

COMPOSITION-ADJECTIVES. 

Caution. — When  two  or  more  adjectives  are  used  with 
a  noun,  care  must  be  taken  in  their  arrangement.  If  they 
differ  in  rank,  place  nearest  the  noun  the  one  most  closely 
modifying  it.  If  of  the  same  rank,  place  them  where  they 
will  sound  best  —  generally  in  the  order  of  length,  the 
shortest  first. 

Explanation.  —  Two  honest  young  men  were  chosen.  A  tally 
straight,  dignified  person  entered.  Young  tells  the  kind  of  men,  hon- 
est tells  the  kind  of  young  men,  and  two  tells  the  number  of  honest 
young  men  ;  hence  these  adjectives  are  not  of  the  same  rank.  Tall, 
straight,  and  dignified  modify  person  independently — the  person  is 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


tall  and  straight  and  dignified  ;   hence  these  adjectives  are  of  the 
same  rank. 

Notice  the  comma  after  tall  and  straight ;  and  may  be  supplied  ;  in 
the  first  sentence  a7id  cannot  be  supplied.     See  Lesson  21. 

Direction. — Arrange  the  adjectives  below,  and  give  your  reasotis  ;— 

1.  A  Newfoundland  pet  handsome  large  dog.  2,  Level  lovr  five  the 
fields.  3.  A  wooden  rickety  large  building.  4.  Blind  white  beautiful 
three  mice.  5.  An  energetic  restless  brave  people.  6.  An  enlight- 
ened civilized  nation. 


Direction. — Form  sentences  by  prefixing  modified  su 


to  these 


predicates : — 

1.  have  been  invented.  6. 

2.  were  destroyed.  7. 

8.  are  cultivated.  8. 

4.  may  be  abused.  9. 

5,  was  mutilated.  10. 


were  carved. 

have  been  discovered. 

have  fallen. 

will  be  respected. 

have  been  built. 


Direction. — Construct  ten  sentences,  each  of  which  shall  contain  a 
subject  modified  by  three  adjectives — one  from  each  of  these  columns  : — = 
Let  the  adjectives  be  appropriate.     For  punctuation,  see  Lesson  ?j 


The 

dark 

sunny 

That 

bright 

wearisome 

This 

dingy 

commercial 

Those 

short 

blue 

These 

soft 

adventurous 

Five 

brave 

fleecy 

Some 

tiny 

parallel 

Several 

important 

cheerless 

Many 

long 

golden 

A 

warm 

turbid 

Modified  Predicate.  27 


Direction. — Prefix  to  each  of  these  nouns  several  appropriate 
adjectives : — 

River,  frost,  grain,  ships,  air,  men. 

Direction. — Couple  those  adjectives  and  nouns  below  that  most 
appropriately  go  together : — 

Modest,  lovely,  flaunting,  meek,  patient,  faithful,  saucy,  spirited, 
violet,  dahlia,  sheep,  pansy,  ox,  dog,  horse,  rose,  gentle,  duck,  sly, 
waddling,  cooing,  chattering,  homely,  chirping,  puss,  robin,  dove, 
sparrow,  blackbird,  cow,  hen,  cackling. 


LESSON    14. 

MODIFIED    PREDICATE. 

ADVERBS. 

Introductory  Hints. — You  have  learned  that  the  subject  may  be 
modified  ;  let  us  see  whether  the  predicate  may  be. 

If  we  say,  TJie  leaves  fall,  we  express  a  fact  in  a  general  way.  But, 
if  we  wish  to  speak  of  the  time  of  their  falling,  we  can  add  a  word  and 
say.  The  leaves  fall  early  ;  of  the  place  of  their  falling.  The  leaves  fall 
here  ;  of  the  manner,  The  leaves  fall  quietly  ;  of  the  cause,  Wliy  do 
the  leaves  fall  ? 

We  may  join  a  word  to  one  of  these  modifiers  and  say,  The  leaves 
fall  very  quietly.     Here  very  modifies  quietly  by  telling  the  degree. 

Very  quietly  is  a  group  of  words  modifying  the  predicate.  The 
predicate  with  its  modifiers  is  called  the  Modified  Predicate.  Such 
words  as  very,  here,  and  quietly  form  another  part  of  speech,  and  are 
called  Adverbs  (Lat.  ad,  to,  and  verbum,  a  word,  or  verb). 

Adverbs  may  modify  adjectives  ;  as,  Very  ripe  apples  are  healthful. 
Adverbs  modify  verbs  just  as  adjectives  modify  nouns — by  limiting 
them.     The  horse  has  a  proud  step  =  The  horse  steps  proudly. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  Predicate  with  its  Modifiers  is  called  the  Modi- 
fied Predicate,  or  Logical  Predicate. 

DEFINITION.— An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb, 
an  adjective,  or  an  adverb.* 

Analysis  and    Parsing. 

1.  The  leaves  fall  very  quietly. 

Oral  Analysis. —  Very  quietly  is  a  modifier  of 
leaves        fall  the  predicate ;  quietly  is  the  principal  word  of  the 

group  ;    very  modifies  quietly ;  the  leaves  is  the 
modified  subject  ;  fall  very  quietly  is  the  modi- 
fied predicate. 
Parsing. — Quietly  is  an  adverb  modifying /aZ/,  telling  the  manner  ; 
very  is  an  adverb  modifying  quietly,  telling  the  degree. 

2.  The  old,  historic  Charter  Oak  was  blown  down. 

3.  The  stern,  rigid  Puritans  often  worshiped  there. 

4.  Bright-eyed  daisies  peep  up  everywhere. 

5.  The  precious  morning  hours  should  not  be  wasted. 

6.  The  timely  suggestion  was  very  kindly  receiA'ed. 

7.  We  turned  rather  abruptly. 

8.  A  highly  enjoyable  entertainment  was  provided. 

9.  The  entertainment  was  highly  enjoyed. 

10.  Why  will  people  exaggerate  so  ! 

11.  A    somewhat    dangerous  pass  had  been  reached   quite  unex- 
pectedly. 

12.  We  now  travel  still  more  rapidly. 

13.  Therefore  he  spoke  excitedly. 

14.  You  will  undoubtedly  be  very  cordially  welcomed. 

15.  A  furious  equinoctial  gale  has  just  swept  by. 

16.  The  Hell  Gate  reef  was  slowly  drilled  away. 

*  See  Lesson  92  and  foot-note. 


Composition— Adverbs.  29 

LESSON    15. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERBS. 

Caution. — So  place  adverbs  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  what  you  intend  them  to  modify.  Have  regard  to 
the  sound  also. 

Direction. — Place  the  italicized  words  below  in  different  positions^ 
and  note  the  effect  on  the  sound  and  the  sense  : — 

1.  I  immediately  ran  out.  2.  Only  one  was  left  there.  3.  She 
looked  down  proudly.  4.  Unfortunately,  this  assistance  came  too 
late. 

Direction. — Construct  on  each  of  these  subjects    three  sentences 
having  modified  subjects  and  modified  predicates  ;— 
For  punctuation,  see  Lesson  21. 

Model. clouds . 

1.  Dark,  heavy,  threatening  clouds  are  slowly  gathering  above. 

2.  Those  brilliant,  crimson  clouds  will  very  soon  dissolve. 

3.  Thi?i,  fleecy  clouds  are  scudding  over. 

1. ocean .     2. breeze .     3. shadows . 

4. rock .      5. leaves . 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  these  adverbs  shall  modify 
verbs : — 

Heretofore,  hereafter,  annually,  tenderly,  inaudibly,  le^bly,  eva- 
sively, everywhere,  aloof,  forth. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  five  of  these  adverbs  shall 
modify  adjectives,  and  five  shall  modify  adverbs : — 

Far,  unusually,  quite,  altogether,  slightly,  somewhat,  much,  almost, 
too,  rather. 


5J0  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    16. 

REVIEW. 


To  THE  Teacher.— In  all  school  work,  but  especially  here,  where  the  philosophy 
of  the  sentence  and  the  principles  of  construction  are  developed  in  progressive  steps, 
success  depends  largely  on  the  character  of  the  reviews. 

Let  reviews  be,  so  far  as  possible,  topical.  Require  frequent  outlines  of  the  work 
passed  over,  especially  of  what  is  taught  in  the  "  Introductory  Hints."  The  language, 
except  that  of  Rules  and  Definitions,  should  be  the  pupil's  own,  and  the  illustrative 
sentences  should  be  original. 

Direction. — Revieiv  from  Lesson  8  to  Lesson  15,  inclusive. 

Give  the  substance  of  the  "  Introductory  Hints"  (tell,  for  example, 
what  three  things  such  words  as  tick,  are,  and  remain  do  in  the  sen- 
tence, what  office  they  have  in  common,  what  such  words  are  called, 
and  why  ;  what  common  office  such  words  as  ripe,  the,  and  eight  have, 
in  what  three  ways  they  perform  it,  what  such  words  are  called,  and 
why,  etc.).  Repeat  and  illustrate  definitions  and  rules  ;  illustrate 
what  is  taught  of  the  capitalization  and  the  abbreviation  of  names, 
and  of  the  position  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 


Exercises  on  the  Composition  of  the  Sentence  and  the 
Paragraph. 

(See  pages  150-153.) 

To  THE  Teacher. — After  the  pupil  has  learned  a  few  principles  of  analysis  and 
construction  through  the  aid  of  short  detached  sentences  that  exclude  everything  un- 
familiar, he  may  be  led  to  recognize  these  same  principles  in  longer  related  sentences 
grouped  into  paragraphs.  The  study  of  paragraphs  selected  for  this  purpose  may  well 
be  extended  as  an  informal  preparation  for  what  is  afterwards  formally  presented  in 
the  regular  lessons  of  the  text-book. 

These  "  Exercises"  are  offered  only  as  suggestions.  The  teacher  must,  of  course, 
determine  where  and  how  often  this  composition  should  be  introduced. 

We  invite  special  attention  to  the  study  of  the  paragraph. 


Prepositional  Phrases  and  Prepositions.  31 


LESSON     17. 

PREPOSITIONAL    PHRASES    AND    PREPOSITIONS. 

Introductory  Hints. — To  express  our  thoughts  with  greater  exact- 
ness we  may  need  to  expand  a  word  modifier  into  several  words  ;  as, 
A  long  ride  brought  us  there  =  A  ride  of  one  hundred  miles  brought 
us  to  Chicago.  These  groups  of  words,  of  one  hundred  miles  and  to 
Chicago — the  one  substituted  for  the  adjective  lonQy  the  other  for  the 
adverb  there — we  call  Phrases.  A  phrase  that  does  the  work  of  an 
adjective  is  called  an  Adjective  Phrase.  A  phrase  that  does  the 
work  of  an  adverb  is  called  an  Adverb  Phrase. 

As  adverbs  modify  adjectives  and  adverbs,  they  may  modify  their 
equivalent  phrases  ;  as.  The  train  stops  only  at  the  station.  They 
sometimes  modify  only  the  introductory  word  of  the  phrase — this 
introductory  word  being  adverbial  in  its  nature  ;  as.  He  sailed  nearly 
around  the  globe. 

That  we  may  leara  the  office  of  such  words  as  of,  to,  and  at,  used 
to  introduce  these  phrases,  let  us  see  how  the  relation  of  one  idea  to 
another  may  be  expressed.  Wealthy  men.  These  two  words  express 
two  ideas  as  related.  We  have  learned  to  know,  this  relation  by  the 
form  and  position  of  the  words.  Change  these,  and  the  relation  is 
lost — men  wealth.  But  by  using  of  before  wealth  the  relation  is  re- 
stored—we^ of  wealth.  The  word  of,  then,  shows  the  relation  between 
the  ido^s  expressed  by  the  words  men  and  wealth. 

All  such  relation  words  are  called  Prepositions  (Lat.  prcB,  before, 
and  positus,  placed — their  usual  position  being  before  the  noun  with 
which  they  form  a  phrase). 

A  phrase  introduced  by  a  preposition  is  called  a  Prepositional 
Phrase.     This,  however,  is  not  the  only  kind  of  phrase. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


DEFINITION.— A  Fhrase  is  a  group  of  words  denoting*  re- 
lated ideas,  and  haying  a  distinct  office,  but  not  expressing  a 
thought. 

DEFINITION.— A  Preposition  is  a  word  that  introduces  a 
phrase  modifier,  and  shows  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  its  princi- 
pal word  to  the  word  modified. 

Analysis  and  Parsing. 

1.  The  pitch  of  the  musical  note  depends  upon  the  rapidity  of 
Tibration. 
To  THE  Teachek.— See  suggestions  in  Lesson  12,  concerning  the  use  of  diagrams. 

pitch  depends  explanation.  —  The     dia- 

gram of  the  phrase  is  made  up 
of  a  slanting  line  standing  for 
the  introductory  word,  and  a 
horizontal  line  representing 
the  principal  word.  Under  the 
latter  are  drawn  the  lines  which 
represent  the  modifiers  of  the  principal  word. 

Oral  Analysis. — The  and  the  adjective  phrase  of  the  musical  note 
are  modifiers  of  the  subject  ;  the  adverb  phrase  upon  the  rapidity  of 
vibration  is  a  modifier  of  the  predicate.  Of  introduces  the  first 
phrase,  and  note  is  the  principal  word  ;  the  and  musical  are  modi- 
fiers of  note ;  upon  introduces  the  second  phrase,  and  rapidity  is  the 
principal  word  ;  the  and  the  adjective  phrase  of  vibration  are  modi- 
fiers of  rapidity  ;  of  introduces  this  phrase,  and  vibration  is  the  prin- 
cipal word. 

To  THE  Teacher. — See  suggestions  in  Lesson  12,  concerning  oral  analysis. 

Parsing. — Of  is  a  preposition  showing  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  note 
to  pitch  ;  etc.,  etc. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Insist  that,  in  parsing,  the  pupils  shall  give  specific  reasons 
instead  of  general  definitions. 


Prepositional  Phrases  and  Prepositions.  33 


2.  The  Gulf  Stream  can  be  traced  along  the  shores  of  the  United 
States  by  the  blueness  of  the  water. 

3.  The  North  Pole  has  been  approached  in  three  principal  direc- 
tions. 

4.  In  1607,*  Hudson  penetrated  within  six  hundred  miles  of  the 
North  Pole. 

5.  The  breezy  morning  died  into  silent  noon. 

6.  The  Delta  of  the  Mississippi  was  once  at  St.  Louis. 

7.  Coal  of  all  kinds  has  originated  from  the  decay  of  plants. 

8.  Genius  can  breathe  freely  only  in  the  atmosphere  of  freedom. 


S^N^  Explanation.— On??/   modifies 

J!s^ the  whole  phrase,  smdjust  modifies 

Y  the  preposition. 


9.  The  Suspension  Bridge  is  stretched  across  the  Niagara  river  just 
below  the  Falls. 

10.  In  Mother  Goose  the  cow  jumps  clear  over  the  moon. 

11.  The  first  standing  army  was  formed  in  the  middle  of  the  fif-. 
teenth  century. 

12.  The  first  astronomical  observatory  in  Europe  was  erected  at 
Seville  by  the  Saracens. 

13.  The  tails  of  some  comets  stretch  to  the  distance  of  100,000,000 
miles. 

14.  The  body  of  the  great  Napoleon  was  carried  back  from  St.  Helena 
to  France. 


♦  "1607"  may  be  treated  as  a  noun,  and  "six  hundred"  as  one  adjective. 
8 


84  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON     18. 

COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL  PHRASES. 

COMMA— RULE.— Phrases  that  are  placed  out  of  their  usual 
order  *  and  made  emphatic,  or  that  are  loosely  connected  with 
the  rest  of  the  sentence,  should  he  set  off  by  the  comma.! 

Remark. — This  rule  must  be  applied  with  caution.  Unless  it  is 
desired  to  make  the  phrase  emphatic,  or  to  break  the  continuity  of  the 
thought,  the  growing  usage  among  writers  is  not  to  set  it  off. 

Direction. — Tell  why  the  comma  is,  or  is  not,  used  in  these  sen- 
tences : — 

1.  Between  the  two  mountains  lies  a  fertile  valley. 

2.  Of  the  scenery  along  the  Rhine,  many  travelers  speak  with 
enthusiasm. 

3.  He  went,  at  the  urgent  request  of  the  stranger,  for  the  doctor. 

4.  He  went  from  New  York  to  Philadelphia  on  Monday. 

5.  In  the  dead  of  night,  with  a  chosen  band,  under  the  cover  of  a 
truce,  he  approached. 

Direction. — Punctuate  such  of  these  sentences  as  need  punctua- 
tion : — 

1.  England  in  the  eleventh  century  was  conquered  by  the  Normans. 

2.  Amid  the  angry  yells  of  the  spectators  he  died. 

3.  For  the  sake  of  emphasis  a  word  or  a  phrase  may  be  placed  out  of 
its  natural  order. 

4.  In  the  Pickwick  Papers  the  conversation  of  Sam  Weller  is  spiced 
with  wit. 

*  For  the  usual  order  of  words  and  phrases,  see  Lesson  51. 

t  An  expression  in  the  body  of  a  sentence  is  set  off  hy  two  commas  ;  at  the  begin- 
ning or  at  the  end,  by  one  comma. 


Composition— Prepositional  Phrases.  35 


5.  New  York  on  the  contrary  abounds  in  men  of  wealth. 

6.  It  has  come  down  by  uninterrupted  tradition  from  the  earliest 
times  to  the  present  day. 

Direction. — See  in  how  many  places  the  phrases  in  the  sentences 
above  may  stand  without  obscuring  the  thought. 

Caution. — So  place  phrase  modifiers  that  there  can  be 
no  doubt  as  to  what  you  intend  them  to  modify.  Have 
regard  to  the  sound  also. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  in  position,  and  use  the  comma 
when  needed: — 

1.  The  honorable  member  was  reproved  for  being  intoxicated  by 
the  president. 

2.  That  small  man  is  speaking  with  red  whiskers. 

3.  A  message  was  read  from  the  President  in  the  Senate. 

4.  With  his  gun  toward  the  woods  he  started  in  the  morning. 

5.  On  Monday  evening  on  temperance  by  Mr.  Gough  a  lectui-e  at 
the  old  brick  church  was  delivered. 

Direction. — Form  a  setifence  out  of  each  of  these  groups  of 
words : — 

(Look  sharply  to  the  arrangement  and  the  punctuation.) 

1.  Of  mind  of  splendor  under  the  garb  often  is  concealed  poverty. 

2.  Of  affectation  of  the  young  fop  in  the  face  impertinent  an  was 
seen  smile. 

3.  Ha^  been  scattered  Bible  English  the  of  millions  by  hundreds  of 
the  earth  over  the  face. 

4.  To  the  end  with  no  small  difficulty  of  the  journey  at  last  through 
deep  roads  we  after  much  fatigue  came. 

5.  At  the  distance  a  flood  of  flame  from  the  line  from  thirty  iron 
mouths  of  twelve  hundred  yards  of  the  enemy  poured  forth. 


30  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. — See  into  how  many  good,  clear  sentences  you  can  con- 
vert these  by  transposing  the  phrases : — 

1.  He  went  over  the  mountains  on  a  certain  day  in  early  boyhood. 

2.  Ticonderoga  was  taken  from  the  British  by  Ethan  Allen  on  the 
tenth  of  May  in  1775. 

LESSON    19. 

COMPOSITION-PREPOSITIONAL  PHRASES. 

Direction. — Rewrite  these  sentences,  changing  the  italicized  words 
into  equivalent  phrases : — 
Model. — The  sentence  was  carefully  written. 
The  sentence  was  written  with  care. 

1.  A  brazen  image  was  then  set  up. 

2.  Those  homeless  children  were  kindly  treated. 

3.  Much  has  been  said  about  the  Sunss  scenery. 

4.  An  aerial  trip  to  Europe  was  rashly  planned. 

5.  The  American  Continent  was  probably  discovered  by  Cabot. 
Direction. — Change  these  adjectives  and  adverbs  info  equivalent 

phrases  ;  and  then,  attending  carefully  to  the  punctuation,  use  these 
phrases  in  sentences  of  your  own : — 

1.  Bostonian  6.  hence  11.  Arabian 

2.  why  7.  northerly  12.  lengthy 
8.  incautiously                 8.  national  13.  historical 
4    nowhere                        9.  whence                   14.  lucidly 

5.  there  10.  here  15.  earthward 

Direction. — Compose  sentences,  using  these  phrases  as  modifiers: — 
Of  copper  ;  in  Pennsylvania  ;  from  the  West  Indies  ;  around  the 
world  ;  between  the  tropics  ;  toward  the  Pacific  ;  on  the  22d  of  Febru- 
ary ;  during  the  reign  of  Elizabeth  ;  before  the  application  of  steam  to 
machinery ;  at  the  Centennial  Exposition  of  1876. 


Compound  Subject  and  Compound  Predicate.         37 


LESSON    20. 

COMPOUND    SUBJECT   AND    COMPOUND    PREDICATE. 

CONJUNCTIONS   AND  INTERJECTIONS. 

Introductory  Hints. — Edward ^  Mary,  and  Elizabeth  reigned  in 
England.  The  three  words  Edward,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth  have  the 
same  predicate — the  same  act  being  asserted  of  the  king  and  the 
two  queens.  Edward,  Mary,  and  Elizabeth  are  connected  by  and, 
and  being  understood  between  Edward  and  Mary.  Connected  sub- 
jects having  the  same  predicate  form  a  Compound  Subject. 

Charles  I.  was  seized,  luas  tried,  and  was  beheaded.  The  three 
predicates  was  seized,  was  tried,  and  was  beheaded  have  the  same 
subject — the  three  acts  being  asserted  of  the  same  king.  Connected 
predicates  having  the  same  subject  form  a  Compound  Predicate. 

A  sentence  may  have  both  a  compound  subject  and  a  compound 
predicate  ;  as,  Mary  and  Elizabeth  lived  and  reigned  in  England. 

The  words  connecting  the  parts  of  a  compound  subject  or  of  a  com- 
pound predicate  are  called  Conjunctions  (Lat.  con,  or  cum,  together, 
and  jungere,  to  join). 

A  conjunction  may  connect  other  parts  of  the  sentence,  as  two  word 
modifiers— A  dark  and  rainy  night  follows  ;  Some  men  sin  deliber- 
ately and  presumptuously. 

It  may  connect  two  phrases  ;  as,  The  equinox  occurs  in  March  and 
in  September. 

It  may  connect  two  clauses,  that  is,  expressions  that,  standing 
alone,  would  be  sentences  ;  as,  The  leaves  of  the  pine  fall  in  spring, 
but  the  leaves  of  the  maple  drop  in  autumn. 

Interjections  (Lat.  inter,  between,  and  jacere,  to  throw)  are  the 
eighth  and  last  part  of  speech. 

Oh  !  ah  I  pooh  !  pshaw  !  etc.,  express  bursts  of  feeling  too  sudden 
and  violent  for  deliberate  sentences. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Hail  !  fudge  !  indeed  I  amen  !  etc.,  express  condensed  thought  as 
well  as  feeling. 

Any  part  of  speech  may  be  wrenched  from  its  construction  .with 
other  words,  and  may  lapse  into  an  interjection  ;  as,  behold  I  shame  ! 
what ! 

Professor  Sweet  calls  interjections  sentence-words. 


Two  or  more  connected  subjects  having  the  same  predi- 
cate form  a  Compound  Subject. 

Two  or  more  connected  predicates  having  the  same 
subject  form  a  Compound  Predicate. 

DEFINITION.— A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect 
words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 

DEFINITION.— An  Interjection  is  a  word  used  to  express 
strong  or  sudden  feeling. 

Analysis   and    Parsing. 

1.  Ah  !  anxious  wives,  sisters,  and  mothers  wait  for  the  news. 

Ah  _  Explanation.  —  The    three    short 

w^^g^ .  horizontal  lines  represent  each  a  part 

i\  ,  of  the  compound  subject.      They  are 

^'^^•^ — i "  \   ,   I    ^^^^ connected  by  dotted  lines,  which  stand 

iV       ^    \^  for  the  connecting  word.    The  x  shows 

.    irnoil^^ — V  \i     \^nem_     that  a  conjunction  is  understood.     The 

\       ^     \^       line  standing  for  the  Avord  modifier  is 
joined  to  that  part  of  the  subject  line 
which  represents  the  entire  subject.    Turn  this  diagram  about,  and  the  con- 
nected horizontal  lines  will  stand  for  the  parts  of  a  compound  predicate. 

Oral  Analysis. — Wives,  sisters,  and  mothers  form  the  compound 
subject  ;  anxious  is  a  modifier  of  the  compound  subject  ;  and  connects 
sisters  and  mothers. 

'PsLTBins.—And  is  a  conjunction  connecting  sisters  and  mothers; 
ah  is  an  interjection,  expressing  a  sudden  burst  of  feeling. 


Compound  Subject  and  Compound  Predicate.  39 


2.  In  a  letter  we  may  advise,  exhort,  comfort,  request,  and  discuss. 
(For  diagram  see  the  last  sentence  bf  the  "  Explanation  "  above.) 

3.  The  mental,  moral,  and  muscular  powers  are  improved  by  use. 

powerx came 


\ 


parentage. 
land 


4.  The  hero  of  the  Book  of  Job  came  from  a  strange  land  and  of  a 
strange  parentage. 

5.  The  optic  nerve  passes  from  the  brain  to  the  back  of  the  eyeball, 
and  there  spreads  out. 

6.  Between  the  mind  of  man  and  the  outer  world  are  interposed 
the  nerves  of  the  human  body. 

7.  All  forms  of  the  lever  and  all  the  principal  kinds  of  hinges  are 
found  in  the  body. 

8.  By  perfection  is  meant  the  full  and  harmonious  development  of 
alL the  faculties. 

9.  Ugh  !  I  look  forward  with  dread  to  to-morrow. 

10.  From  the  Mount  of  Olives,  the  Dead  Sea,  dark  and  misty  and 
solemn,  is  seen. 

11.  Tush  !  tush  !  't  will  not  again  appear. 

12.  A  sort  of  gunpowder  was  used  at  an  early  period  in  China  and 
in  other  parts  of  Asia. 

13.  Some  men  sin  deliberately  and  presumptuously. 

14.  Feudalism  did  not  and  could  not  exist  before  the  tenth  century. 

15.  The  opinions  of  the  Xew  York  press  are  quoted  in  every  port 
and  in  every  capital. 

16.  Both  friend  and  foe  applauded. 

friend  Explanation. — The  conjunction  both  is 

applauded      used  to  strengthen  the  real  connective  and. 

foe 


t"%/  I  Either  and  neither  do  the  same  for  or  and  nor 

in  either — or^  neither — nor. 


40  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Remark.— A  phrase  that  contains  another  phrase  as  a  modifier  is 
called  a  Complex  Phrase.  Two  or  more  phrases  connected  by  a 
conjunction  form  a  Compound  Phrase. 

Direction. — Pick  out  the  simple,  the  complex,  and  the  compound 
phrases  in  the  sentences  above. 


LESSON     2  1. 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTED    TERMS   AND 
INTERJECTIONS. 

COMMA— RULE.— Words  or  phrases  connected  by  conjunc- 
tions are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  comma  unless  all 
the  conjunctions  are  expressed. 

Remark. — When  words  and  phrases  stand  in  pairs,  the  pairs  are 
separated  according  to  the  Rule,  but  the  words  of  each  pair  are  not. 

When  one  of  two  terras  has  a  modifier  that  without  the  comma 
might  be  referred  to  both,  or,  when  the  parts  of  compound  predicates 
and  of  other  phrases  are  long  or  differently  modified,  these  terms  or 
parts  are  separated  by  the  comma  though  no  conjunction  is  omitted. 

When  two  terms  connected  by  or  have  the  same  meaning,  the  second 
is  logically  explanatory  of  the  first,  and  is  set  off  by  the  comma,  i.  e., 
when  it  occurs  in  the  bod»y  of  a  sentence,  a  comma  is  placed  after  the 
explanatory  word,  as  well  as  before  the  or. 

Direction. — Justify  the  pu7ictuation  of  these  sentences : — 

1.  Long,  pious  pilgrimages  are  made  to  Mecca. 

2.  Empires  rise,  flourish,  and  decay. 

3.  Cotton  is  raised  in  Egypt,  in  India,  and  in  the  United  States. 

4.  The  brain  is  protected  by  the  skull,  or  cranium. 

5.  Nature  and  art  and  science  were  laid  under  tribute. 

6.  The  room  was  furnished  with  a  table,  and  a  chair  without  legs. 


Composition— Connected  Terms  and  Interjections.     41 


7.  The  old  oaken  bucket  hangs  in  the  well. 
Explanation. — No   comma   here,   for  no  conjunction  is  omitted. 
Oaken  limits  bucket,   old  limits  bucket  modified  by  oaken,   and  the 
limits  bucket  modified  by  old  and  oaken.     See  Lesson  13. 

0.  A  Christian  spirit  should  be  shown  to  Jew  or  Greek,  male  or 
female,  friend  or  foe. 

9.  We  climbed  up  a  mountain  for  a  view. 

Explanation.  —  No    comma.       Up  a  mountain    tells    where    we 
climbed,  and  for  a  view  tells  why  we  climbed  up  a  mountain. 

10.  The  boy  hurries  away  from  home,  and  entei-s  upon  a  career  of 
business  or  of  pleasure. 

11.  The  long  procession  was  closed  by  the  great  dignitaries  of  the 
realm,  and  the  brothers  and  sons  of  the  king. 

Direction. — Punctuate  such  of  these  sentences  as  need  punctuation, 
and  give  your  reasons : — 

1.  Men  and  women  and  children  stare  cry  out  and  run. 

2.  Bright  healthful  and  vigorous  poetry  was  written  by  Milton. 

3.  Few  honest  industrious  men  fail  of  success  in  life. 

(Where  is  the  conjunction  omitted?) 

4.  Ireland  or  the  Emerald  Isle  lies  to  the  west  of  England. 

5.  That  relates  to  the  names  of  animals  or  of  things  without  sex. 

6.  The  Hebrew  is  closely  allied  to  the  Arabic  the  Phoenician  the 
Syriac  and  the  Chaldee. 

7.  We  sailed  down  the  river  and  along  the  coast  and  into  a  little 
inlet. 

8.  The  horses  and  the  cattle  were  fastened  in  the  same  stables  and 
were  fed  with  abundance  of  hay  and  grain. 

9.  Spring  and  summer  autumn  and  winter  rush  by  in  quick  suc- 
cession. 

10.  A  few  dilapidated  old  buildings  still  stand  in  the  deserted  village. 


42  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


EXCLAMATION  POINT— RULE.— All  Exclamatory  Ex- 
pressions must  be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point. 

Remark. — Sometimes  an  interjection  alone  and  sometimes  an 
interjection  and  the  words  following  it  form  the  exclamatory  expres- 
sion ;  as,  Oh  !  it  hurts.     Oh,  the  beautiful  snow  ! 

0  is  used  in  direct  address  ;  as,  0  father,  listen  to  me.  Oh  is  used 
as  a  cry  of  pain,  surprise,  delight,  fear,  or  appeal.  This  distinction, 
however  desirable,  is  not  strictly  observed,  0  being  frequently  used 
in  place  of  Oh. 

CAPITAL  LETTERS-RULE.— The  words  I  and  O  should 
be  written  in  capital  letters. 

Direction. — Correct  these  violations  of  the  two  rules  given  above  : — 
1.  o  noble  judge  o  excellent  young  man.     2.  Out  of  the  depths  have 

i  cried  unto  thee.     3.  Hurrah  the  field  is  won.     4.  Pshaw  how  foolish. 

5.  Oh  oh  oh  i  shall  be  killed.     6.  o  life  how  uncertain  o  death  how 

inevitable. 


LESSON    22. 

ANALYSIS    AND    PARSING. 

Direction. — Beginning  with  the  Sth  sentence  of  the  first  group  of 
exercises  in  Lesson  21,  analyze  thirteen  sentences,  omitting  the  4th  of 
the  second  group. 


Model. — A  Christian  spirit 
should  be  shown  to  Jew  or 
Greek,  male  or  female,  friend 
or  foe. 


\ 

\ 

\ 

/ 

Jew 

^1    GreeTc 

<: 

male 

~X:  female 

friend 

\ 

-<$!  A. 

Composition— Connected  Terms.  43 


LESSON    23. 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTED    TERMS. 

Direction. —  Using  the  nouns  below,  compose  sentences  with  com- 
pound subjects  ;  compose  others  in  which  the  verbs  shall  form  compound 
predicates;  and  others  in  which  the  adjectives,  the  adverbs,  and  the 
phrases  shall  form  compound  modifiers : —  -        ■ 

In  some  let  there  be  three  or  more  connected  terras.  Observe  Rule, 
Lesson  21,  for  punctuation.     Let  your  sentences  mean  something. 

NOUNS. 

Washington,  beauty,  grace,  Jefferson,  symmetry,  lightning,  Lin- 
coln, electricity,  copper,  silver,  flowers,  gold,  rose,  lily. 


Examine,  sing,  pull,  push,  report,  shout,  love,  hate,  like,  scream,, 
loathe,  approve,  fear,  obey,  refine,  hop,  elevate,  skip,  disapprove. 

ADJECTIVES. 

Direction. — See  Caution,  Lesson  13. 

Bright,  acute,  patient,  careful,  apt,  forcible,  simple,  homely,  happy,, 
short,  pithy,  deep,  jolly,  mercurial,  precipitous. 

ADVERBS. 

Direction. — See  Caution,  Lesson  15. 

Neatly,  slowly,  carefully,  sadly,  now,  here,  never,  hereafter. 


On  sea  ;  in  the  city  ;  by  day  ;  on  land  ;  by  night  ;  in  the  country  r 
by  hook  ;  across  the  ocean  ;  by  crook  ;  over  the  lands  ;  along  the 
level  road  ;  up  the  mountains. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    24. 

REVIEW. 

CAPITAL   LETTERS   AND   PUNCTUATION. 

Direction. — Give  the  reason  for  every  capital  letter  and  for  every 
mark  of  punctuation  used  below : — 

1.  The  sensitive  parts  of  the  body  are  covered  by  the  cuticle,  or 
skin.  2.  The  degrees  of  A.B.,  A.M.,  D.D.,  and  LL.D.  are  conferred 
by  the  colleges  and  the  universities  of  the  country.  3.  Oh,  I  am  so 
happy  !  4.  Fathers  and  mothers,  sons  and  daughters  rejoice  at  the 
news.  5.  Plants  are  nourished  by  the  earth,  and  the  carbon  of  the 
air.  6.  A  tide  of  American  travelers  is  constantly  flooding  Europe. 
7.  The  tireless,  sleepless  sun  rises  above  the  horizon,  and  climbs 
slowly  and  steadily  to  the  zenith.  8.  He  retired  to  private  life  on 
half  pay,  and  on  the  income  of  a  large  estate  in  the  South. 

Direction. —  Write  these  expressions,  using  capital  letters  and 
marks  of  punctuation  where  they  belong  : — 

1.  a  fresh  ruddy  and  beardless  french  youth  replied  2.  maj,  cal, 
bu,  p  m,  rev,  no,  hon,  ft,  w,  e,  oz,  mr,  n  y,  a  b,  mon,  bbl,  st  3.  o 
father  o  father  i  cannot  breathe  here  4.  ha  ha  that  sounds  well  5!. 
the  edict  of  nantes  was  established  by  henry  the  great  of  france  6^ 
mrs,  vs,  CO,  esq,  yd,  pres,  u  s,  prof,  o,  do,  dr  7.  hurrah  good  news 
good  news  8.  the  largest  fortunes  grow  by  the  saving  of  cents  and 
dimes  and  dollars  9.  the  baltic  sea  lies  between  Sweden  and  russia 
10.  the  mississippi  river  pours  into  the  gulf  of  mexico  11.  supt,  capt, 
qt,  ph  d,  p,  cr,  i  e,  doz  12.  benjamin  franklin  was  born  in  boston  in 
1706  and  died  in  1790 

Direction. — Correct  all  these  errors  in  capitalization  and  punctvr 
ation,  and  give  your  reasons: — 


Miscellaneous  Exercises  In  Review.  45 


1.  Oliver  cromwell  ruled,  over  the  english  People,  2.  halloo,  i 
must  speak  to  You  !  3.  John  Milton,  went  abroad  in  Early  Life,  and, 
stayed,  for  some  time,  with  the  Scholars  of  Italy,  4.  Most  Fuel  con- 
sists of  Coal  and  Wood  from  the  Forests  5.  books  are  read  for  Pleas- 
ure, and  the  Instruction  and  improvement  of  the  Intellect,  6.  In 
rainy  weather  the  feet  should  be  protected  by  overshoes  or  galoches 
7.  hark  they  are  coming  !  8.  A,  neat,  simple  and  manly  style  is 
pleasing  to  Us.  9.  alas  poor  thing  alas,  10.  i  fished  on  a,  dark-  and 
cool,  and  mossy,  trout  stream. 


LESSON     25. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    REVIEW. 

ANALYSIS. 

1.  By  the  streets  of  By-and-by,*  one  arrives  at  the  house  of  Never. — 
Spanish  Proverb. 

2.  The  winds  and  waves  are  always  on  the  side  of  the  ablest  navi- 
gators.— Gibbon. 

3.  The  axis  of  the  earth  sticks  out  visibly  through  the  center  of  each 
and  every  town  or  city. — Holmes. 

4.  The  arrogant  Spartan,  with  a  French-like  glorification,  boasted 
forever  of  little  Thermopylas. — De  Quincey. 

5.  The  purest  act  of  knowledge  is  always  colored  by  some  feeling  of 
pleasure  or  pain. — Hamilton. 

*  By-and-by  has  no  real  streets,  the  London  journals  do  not  actually  thunder,  nor 
were  the  cheeks  of  William  the  Testy  literally  scorched  by  his  fiery  gray  eyes.  Streets, 
fixmse,  colored,  thunder,  and  scorched  are  not,  then,  used  here  in  their  first  and  ordinary 
meaning,  but  in  a  secondary  and  figurative  sense.  These  words  we  call  Metaphors. 
By  what  they  denote  and  by  what  they  only  suggest  they  lend  clearness,  vividness, 
and  force  to  the  thought  they  help  to  convey,  and  add  beauty  to  the  expression. 

For  further  treatment  of  metaphors  and  other  figures  of  speech,  see  pages  87, 136, 
155,  156,  165,  and  Lesson  150. 


46 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


6.  The  thunder  of  the  great  London  journals  reverberates  through 
every  clime. — 3Iarsh. 

7.  The  cheeks  of  William  the  Testy  were  scorched  into  a  dusky  red 
by  two  fiery  little  gray  eyes. — Irving. 

8.  The  study  of  natural  science  goes  hand  in  hand  *  with  the  cul- 
ture of  the  imagination. — Tyndall. 

9.  The  whole  substance  of  the  winds  is  drenched  and  bathed  and 
washed  and  winnowed  and  sifted  through  and  through  by  this  baptism 
in  the  sea. — Swain. 

10.  The  Arabian  Empire  stretched  from  the  Atlantic  to  the  Chinese 
Wall,  and  from  the  shores  of  the  Caspian  Sea  to  those  of  the  Indian 
Ocean. — Draper. 

11.  Otle  half  of  all  known  materials  consists  of  oxygen. — Cooke. 

12.  The  range  of  thirty  pyramids,  even  in  the  time  of  Abraham, 
looked  down  on  the  plain  of  Mem^ihis.— Stanley. 


LESSON    26. 

WRITTEN    PARSING. 
Direction. — Parse  the  sentences  of  Lesson  25   according  to  this 
Model  for  Written  Parsing. 


Nouns. 

Prrni. 

Verbs. 

Adj. 

Adv. 

Prep. 

CorO. 

Int. 

let 
sentence. 

streets, 
By-and- 

house, 
Never. 

one. 

arrives. 

the,  the. 

By,  of, 

at,  of. 

2d 
sentence. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Until  the  Subdivisions  and  Modifications  of  the  parts  of 
speech  are  reached.  Oral  and  Written  Parsing  can  be  only  a  classification  of  the 
words  in  the  sentence.    You  must  judge  how  frequently  a  lesson  like  this  is  needed, 


*  Hand  in  hand  may  be  treated  as  one  adverb,  or  with  may  be  supplied. 


Review.  47 


and  how  much  parsing  should  be  done  orally  day  by  day.  In  their  Oral  Analysis  let 
the  pupils  give  at  first  the  reasons  for  every  statement,  but  guard  against  their  doing 
this  mechanically  and  in  set  terms ;  and,  when  you  think  it  can  safely  be  done,  let 
them  drop  it.  But  ask  now  and  then,  whenever  you  think  they  have  grown  careless 
or  are  guessing,  for  the  reason  of  this,  that,  or  the  other  step  taken. 

Here  it  may  be  well  to  emphasize  the  fact  that  the  part  of  speech  to  which  any  word 
l)elong8  is  determined  by  the  use  of  the  word,  and  not  by  its  form.  Such  exercises  as 
the  following  are  suggested  :— 

Use  Hght  words. 

Act  right. 

Bight  the  wrong. 

You  are  in  the  right. 
Pupils  will  be  interested  in  finding  sentences  that  illustrate  the  different  uses  of  the 
same  word.    It  is  hardly  necessary  for  us  to  make  lists  of  words  that  have  different 
uses.     Any  dictionary  will  furnish  abundant  examples.     It  is  an  excellent  practice  to 
point  out  such  words  in  the  regular  exercises  for  analysis. 


LESSON     27. 

REVIEW. 

To  THE  Teacher.— See  suggestions.  Lesson  IG. 

Direction. — Revieiv  from  Lesson  17  to  Lesson  21,  inclusive. 

Give  the  substance  of  the  "Introductory  Plints"  (tell,  for  example, 
what  such  words  as  long  and  there  may  be  expanded  into,  how  these 
expanded  forms  may  be  modified,  how  introduced,  what  the  introduc- 
tory words  are  called,  and  why,  etc.).  Repeat  and  illustrate  defi- 
nitions and  rules  ;  illustrate  fully  what  is  taught  of  the  position  of 
phrases,  and  of  the  punctuation  of  phrases,  connected  terms,  and 
exclamatory  expressions.     How  many  parts  of  speech  are  there  ? 


Exercises   on  the   Composition  of  the  Sentence  and  the 
Paragraph. 

(See  pages  153-156.) 

To  THE  Teacher.— See  notes  to  the  teacher,  pages  30,  150. 


48  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    28. 

NOUNS   AS    OBJECT    COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory  Hints. — In  saying  Washington  ca2)tured,  we  do  not 
fully  express  the  act  performed  by  Washington.  If  we  add  a  noun 
and  say,  Washington  captured  Coriiwallis,  we  complete  the  predicate 
by  naming  that  which  receives  the  act. 

Whatever  fills  out,  or  completes,  is  a  Complement.  As  Cornwallis 
completes  the  expression  of  the  act  by  naming  the  thing  acted  upon 
— the  object — we  call  it  the  Object  Complement.  Connected  ob- 
jects completing  the  same  verb  form  a  Compound  Object  Comple- 
ment ;  as,  Washington  captured  Cornwallis  and  his  army. 


DEFINITION.— The   Object  Complement  of  a  Sentence 
completes  the  predicate,  and  names  that  which  receiyes  the  act. 

The   complement   with   all   its   modifiers  is    called   the 
Modified  Complement. 


thinking    ,    makea    ,    toriting 


Analysis. 

1.  Clear  thinking  makes  clear  writing. 

Oral  Analysis. —  Writing   is    the 

object  complement ;  clear  writing  is 
^  ^        the  modified  complement,  and  makes 

^  clear  writing  is  the  entire  predicate. 

2.  Austerlitz  killed  Pitt. 

3.  The  invention  of  gunpowder  destroyed  feudalism. 

4.  Liars  should  have  good  memories. 

5.  We  find  the  first  surnames  in  the  tenth  century. 

6.  God  tempers  the  wind  to  the  shorn  lamb. 

7.  Benjamin  Franklin  invented  the  lightning-rod. 


Nouns  and  Adjectives  as  Attribute  Complements.     49 


8.  At  the  opening  of  the  thirteenth  century,  Oxford  took  and  held 
rank  with  the  greatest  schools  of  Europe. 


revolves 


Jceeps    .  side 


9.  The  moon  revolves,  and  keeps  the  same  side  toward  us. 

10.  Hunger  rings  the  bell,  and  orders  up  coals  in  the  shape  of  bread 
and  butter,  beef  and  bacon,  pies  and  puddings. 

11.  The  history  of  the  Trojan  war  rests  on  the  authority  of  Homer, 
and  forms  the  subject  of  the  noblest  poem  of  antiquity. 

12.  Every  stalk,  bud,  flower,  and  seed  displays  a  figure,  a  propor- 
tion, a  harmony,  beyond  the  reach  of  art. 

13.  The  natives  of  Ceylon  build  houses  of  the  trunk,  and  thatch 
roofs  with  the  leaves,  of  the  cocoa-nut  palm. 

14.  Richelieu  exiled  the  mother,  oppressed  the  wife,  degraded  the 
brother,  and  banished  the  confessor,  of  the  king. 

15.  James  and  John  study  and  recite  grammar  and  arithmetic. 


JcDiiesi 


ntudy 


John 


recite 


grammar 


aritTimetie 


LESSON    29. 

NOUNS    AND    ADJECTIVES    AS    ATTRIBUTE 
COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory  Hints. — The  subject  presents  one  idea  ;  the  predi- 
cate presents  another,  and  asserts  it  of  the  first.  Corn  is  growing  pre- 
sents the  idea  of  the  thing,  corn,  and  the  idea  of  the  act,  growing, 
and  asserts  the  act  of  the  thing.  Corn  growing  lacks  the  asserting 
word,  and  Corn  is  lacks  the  word  denoting  the  idea  to  be  asserted. 


50  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


In  logic,  the  asserting  word  is  called  the  copula — it  shows  that  the 
two  ideas  are  coupled  into  a  thought — and  the  word  expressing  the 
idea  asserted  is  called  the  predicate.  But,  as  one  word  often  performs 
both  offices,  e.  g.,  Corn  grows,  and,  as  it  is  disputed  whether  any 
word  can  assert  without  expressing  something  of  the  idea  asserted,  we 
pass  this  distinction  by  as  not  essential  in  grammar,  and  call  both  that 
which  asserts  and  that  which  expresses  the  idea  asserted,  by  one  name 
— the  predicate.* 

The  maple  leaves  become.  The  verb  become  does  not  make  a  com- 
plete predicate  ;  it  does  not  fully  express  the  idea  to  be  asserted.  The 
idea  may  be  completely  expressed  by  adding  the  adjective  red,  denot- 
ing the  quality  we  wish  to  assert  of  leaves,  or  attribute  to  them — The 
maple  leaves  become  red. 

Lizards  are  reptiles.  The  noun  reptiles,  naming  the  class  of  the 
animals  called  lizards,  performs  a  like  office  for  the  asserting  word 
are.  Rolfe's  wife  was  Pocahontas.  Pocahontas  completes  the  predi- 
cate by  presenting  a  second  idea,  which  was  asserts  to  be  identical 
with  that  of  the  subject. 

When  the  completing  word  expressing  the  idea  to  be  attributed  does 
not  unite  with  the  asserting  word  to  make  a  single  verb,  we  distinguish 
it  as  the  Attribute  Complement. f  Connected  attribute  complements 
of  the  same  verb  form  a  Compound  Attribute  Complement. 

Most  grammarians  call  the  adjective  and  the  noun,  when  so  used, 
the  Predicate  Adjective  and  the  Predicate  Noun. 


DEFINITION.— The  Attribute  Complement  of  a  Sen- 
fence  completes  the  predicate  and  belongs  to  the  subject. 

*  We  may  call  the  verb  the  predicate;  but,  when  it  is  followed  by  a  complement, 
it  is  an  incomplete  predicate. 

+  Subjective  Complement  may,  if  preferred,  be  used  instead  of  Attribute  Com- 
jHem^nt, 


Nouns  and  Adjectives  as  Attribute  Complements.     51 


Analysis. 


1.  Slang  is  vulgar. 


Slang   .    is    ^   vidyar  Explanation.  —  The  line  standing  for 

'  the  attribute  complement  is,  like  the  object 

line,  a  continuation  of  the  predicate  line ;  but  notice  that  the  line  which 

Beparates  the  incomplete  predicate  from  the  complement  slants  toward  the 

subject  to  show  that  the  complement  is  an  attribute  of  it. 

Oral  Analysis. —  Vulgar  is  the  attribute  complement,  completing 
the  predicate  and  expressing  a  quality  of  slang  ;  is  vulgar  is  the  entire 
predicate. 

2.  The  sea  is  fascinating  and  treacherous. 

3.  The  mountains  are  grand,  tranquil,  and  lovable. 

4.  The  Saxon  words  in  English  are  simple,  homely,  and  substantial. 

5.  The  French  and  the  Latin  words  in  English  are  elegant,  dig- 
nified, and  artificial.* 

6.  The  ear  is  the  ever-open  gateway  of  tlie  soul. 

7.  The  verb  is  the  life  of  the  sentence. 

8.  Good-breeding  is  surface-Christianity. 

9.  A  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green.  ♦ 

Explanation. — The  subject  names  that  of  which  the  speaker  says 
something.  The  terms  in  which  he  says  it, — the  predicate, — he,  of 
course,  assumes  that  the  hearer  already  understands.  Settle,  then, 
which — plant  or  ivy — Dickens  supposed  the  reader  to  know  least 
about,  and  which,  therefore,  Dickens  was  telling  him  about  ;  and  you 
settle  which  word — plant  or  ivy — is  the  subject.  (Is  it  not  the  writer's 
poetical  conception  of  "the  green  ivy"  that  the  reader  is  supposed  not 
to  possess  ?) 

10.  The  highest  outcome  of  culture  is  simplicity. 

11.  Stillness  of  person  and  steadiness  of  features  are  signal  marks 
of  good-breeding. 

*  The  assertion  in  this  sentence  is  true  only  in  the  main. 


63  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


12.  The  north  wind  is  full  of  courage,  and  puts  the  stamina  of 
endurance  into  a  man. 

13.  The  west  wind  is  hopeful,  and  has  promise  and  adventure  in  it. 

14.  The  east  wind  is  peevishness  and  mental  rheumatism  and  grum- 
bling,  and  curls  one  up  in  the  chimney-corner. 

15.  The  south  wind  is  full  of  longing  and  unrest  and  effeminate 
suggestions  of  luxurious  ease. 


LESSON    30. 

ATTRIBUTE   COMPLEMENTS-CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 

1.  He  went  out  as  mate  and  came  back  captain. 


went 


m^ 


explanation. — Mate,  like  captain,  is 
—  an   attribute  complement.     Some  would. 

_^ ^ftte  say  that  the  conjunction  as  connects  mate 

V  to  Tie;  but  we  think  this  connection  is 

came   y    captain         i^ade  through  the  verb  went,  and  that  as 
^  is  simply  introductory.    This  is  indicated 

in  the  diagram. 

2.  The  sun  shines  bright  and  hot  at  midday. 

3.  Velvet  feels  smooth,  and  looks  rich  and  glossy. 

4.  She  grew  tall,  queenly,  and  beautiful. 

5.  Plato  and  Aristotle  are  called  thp  two  head-springs  of  all 
philosophy. 

6.  Under  the  Roman  law,  every  son  was  regarded  as  a  slave. 
7.*  He  came  a  foe  and  returned  a  friend. 

8.  I  am  here.     I  am  present. 

Explanation. — The  office  of  an  adverb  sometimes  seems  to  fade 
into  that  of  an  adjective  attribute  and  is  not  easily  distinguished 
from  it.    Here,  like  an  adjective,  seems  to  complete  am,  and,  like  an 


Objective  Complements.  53 


adverb,  to  modify  it.     From  their  form  and  usual  function,  here,  in 
this  example,  should  be  called  an  adverb,  and  preserit  an  adjective. 
9.  This  book   is    presented  to  you  as    a    token   of    esteem    and 
gratitude. 

10.  The  warrior  fell  back  upon  the  bed  a  lifeless  Corpse. 

11.  The  apple  tastes  and  smells  delicious. 

12.  Lord  Darnley  turned  out  a  dissolute  and  insolent  husband. 

13.  In  the  fable  of  the  Discontented  Pendulum,  the  weights  hung 
speechless. 

14.  The  brightness  and  freedom  of  the  New  Learning  seemed  incar- 
nate in  the  young  and  scholarly  Sip  Thomas  More. 

15.  Sir  Philip  Sidney  lived  and  died  the  darling  of  the  Court,  and 
the  gentleman  and  idol  of  the  time. 


LESSON     3L 

OBJECTIVE    COMPLEMENTS. 

Introductory  Hints. — He  made  the  wall  white.  Here  made  does 
not  fully  express  the  act  performed  upon  the  wall.  We  do  not  mean 
to  say,  He  made  the  white  wall,  but,  He  made-white  {whitened)  the 
wall.  White  helps  made  to  express  the  act,  and  at  the  same  time  it 
denotes  the  quality  attributed  to  the  wall  as  the  result  of  the  act. 

They  made  Victoria  queen.  Here  made  does  not  fully  express  the 
act  performed  upon  Victoria.  They  did  not  make  Victoria,  but  made- 
queen  {crowned)  Victoria.  Queen  helps  made  to  express  the  act,  and  at 
the  same  time  denotes  the  office  to  which  the  act  raised  Victoria. 

A  word  that,  like  the  adjective  white  or  the  noun  queen,  helps  to 
complete  the  predicate  and  at  the  same  time  belongs  to  the  object  com- 
plement, differs  from  an  attribute  complement  by  belonging  not  to  the 
subject  but  to  the  object  complement,  and  so  is  called  an  Objective 
Complement. 


54  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


As  the  objective  complement  generally  denotes  what  the  receiver  of 
the  act  is  made  to  be,  in  fact  or  in  thought,  it  is  sometimes  called  the 
factitive  complement  or  the  factitive  object  (Lat.  facer e,  to  make).* 

Some  of  the  other  verbs  which  are  thus  completed  are  call,  think, 
choose,  and  name. 


DEFINITION. — The  Objective  Complement  completes  the 
predicate  and  belongs  to  the  object  complement. 

Analysis. 

1.  They  made  Victoria  queen, 

Tfiey        made  ^  queen  ,  Victor Ul  Explanation.— The     line     that 

^^~~^~"^^"~~~^^"^~'^"'^~~~~"^"     separates  made  from  qiceen  slants  to- 
ward the  object  complement  to  show  that  queen  belongs  to  the  object. 

Oral  Analysis. — Queen  is  an  objective  complement  completing 
made  and  belonging  to  Victoria;  made  Victoria  queen  is  the  complete 
predicate. 

2.  Some  one  has  called  the  eye  the  window  of  the  soul. 

3.  Destiny  had  made  Mr,  Churchill  a  schoolmaster. 

4.  President  Hayes  chose  the  flon.  Wm.  M.  Evarts  Secretary  of 
State. 

5.  After  a  break  of  sixty  years  in  the  ducal  line  of  the  English 
nobility,  James  I.  created  the  worthless  Villiers  Duke  of  Bucking- 
ham. 

6.  We  should  consider  time  as  a  sacred  trust. 

Explanation.— J-S  may  be  used  simply  to  introduce  an  objective 
complement. 

7.  Ophelia  and  Polonius  thought  Hamlet  really  insane. 

8.  The  President  and  the  Senate  appoint  certain  men  ministers  to 
foreign  courts. 

*  See  Lesson  37,  last  foot-note. 


Composition— Complements.  55 


9.  Shylock  would  have  struck  Jessica  dead  beside  him, 

10.  Castora  renders  the  feelings  blunt  and  callous. 

11.  Socrates  styled  beauty  a  short-lived  tyranny. 

12.  Madame  de  Stael  calls  beautiful  architecture  frozen  music. 

13.  They  named  the  state  New  York  from  the  Duke  of  York. 

14.  Henry  the  Great  consecrated  the  Edict  of  Nantes  as  the  very 
ark  of  the  constitution. 


LESSON    32. 

COMPOSITION-COMPLEMENTS. 

Caution. — Be  careful  to  distinguish  an  adjective  com- 
plement from  an  adverb  modifier. 

Explanation. — Mary  arrived  safe.  We  here  wish  to  tell  the  con- 
dition of  Mary  on  her  arrival,  and  not  the  manner  of  her  arriving. 
My  head  feels  had  (is  in  a  bad  condition,  as  perceived  by  the  sense 
of  feeling).  The  sun  shines  bright  (is  bright,  as  perceived  by  its 
shining). 

When  the  idea  of  being  is  prominent  in  the  verb,  as  in  the  examples 
above,  you  see  that  the  adjective,  and  not  the  adverb,  follows. 

Direction. — Justify  the  use  of  these  adjectives  and  adverbs: — - 

1.  The  boy  is  running  wild. 

2.  The  boy  is  running  wildly  about. 

3.  They  all  arrived  safe  and  sound. 

4.  The  day  opened  bright. 

5.  He  felt  awkward  in  the  presence  of  ladies. 

6.  He  felt  around  awkwardly  for  his  chair. 

7.  The  sun  shines  bright.  -'■■  ■<y>i^  .V 

8.  The  sun  shines  brightly  on  the  tree-tops.  v  :>, 


56  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


9.  He  appeared  prompt  and  willing. 
10.  He  appeared  promptly  and  willingly. 
Direction. — Correct  these  errors  and  give  your  reasons: — 

1.  My  head  pains  me  very  bad. 

2.  My  friend  has  acted  very  strange  in  the  matter. 
8.  Don't  speak  harsh. 

4.  It  can  be  bought  very  cheaply. 

5.  I  feel  tolerable  well. 

6.  She  looks  beautifully. 

Direction. — Join  to  each  of  the  nouns  below  three  appropriate 
adjectives  expressing  the  qualities  as  assumed,  and  then  make  com- 
plete sentences  by  asserting  these  qualities: — 
Hard  ^ 

Model. — brittle  ^  glass.         Glass  is  hard,  brittle,  and  trans- 

transparent  j  parent. 

Coal,  iron,  Niagara  Falls,  flowers,  war,  ships. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  containing  these  nouns  as  attribute 
complements : — 

Emperor,  mathematician,  Longfellow,  Richmond. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences,  using  these  verbs  as  predicates, 
and  these  pronouns  as  attribute  complements : — 

Is,  was,  might  have  been  ;  I,  we,  he,  she,  they. 

Remark. — Notice  that  these  forms  of  the  pronouns — I,  we,  thou, 
he,  she,  ye,  they,  and  who — are  never  used  as  object  complements  or  as 
principal  words  in  prepositional  phrases  ;  and  that  me,  us,  thee,  him, 
her,  them,  and  whom  are  never  used  as  subjects  or  as  attribute  com- 
plements of  sentences. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  each  of  the  follotoing  verba 
shall  have  two  complements — th6  one  an  object  complement^  the  other  an 
objective  complement : — 


Nouns  as  Adjective  Modifiers.  57 


Let  some  object  complements  be  pronouns,  and  let  some  objective 
complements  be  introduced  by  as. 

Model. — They  call  me  chief.     We  regard  composition  as  very  ?m- 
portant,  , 

Make,  appoint,  consider,  choose,  call. 


LESSON    33. 

NOUNS    AS    ADJECTIVE    MODIFIERS. 

Introductory  Hints. — Solomon's  temple  was  destroyed.  Solomon's 
limits  temple  by  telling  what  or  whose  temple  is  spoken  of,  and  is 
therefore  a  modifier  of  temple. 

The  relation  of  Solomon  to  the  temple  is  expressed  by  the  apos- 
trophe and  s  {'s)  added  to  the  noun  Solomon.  When  s  has  been  added 
to  the  noun  to  denote  more  than  one,  this  relation  of  possession  is 
expressed  by  the  apostrophe  alone  (')  ;  as,  boys'  hats.  This  same 
relation  of  possession  may  be  expressed  by  the  preposition  of;  Sol- 
omon's temple  =  the  temple  of  Solomon. 

Dom  Pedro,  the  emperor,  was  welcomed  by  the  Americatis.  The 
noun  emperor  modifies  Dom  Pedro  by  telling  what  Dom  Pedro  is 
meant.     Both  words  name  the  same  person. 

Solomon's  and  emperor,  like  adjectives,  modify  nouns  ;  but  they  are 
names  of  things,  and  are  modified  by  adjectives  and  not  by  adverbs  ; 
as,  the  wise  Solomon's  temple  ;  Dom  Pedro,  the  Brazilian  emperor. 
These  are  conclusive  reasons  for  calling  such  words  nouns. 

They  represent  two  kinds  of  Noun  Modifiers — the  Possessive 
and  the  Explanatory. 

The  Explanatory  Modifier  is  often  called  an  Appositive.  It  iden- 
tifies or  explains  by  adding  another  name  of  the  same  thing. 


58  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Analysis. 

1.  Elizabeth's  favorite,  Raleigh,  was  beheaded  by  James  I. 

favonte  {RaUigh )   ,  was  leheaded  ^^al   Analysis.  —  ElizahetJi's 

\~  and  Raleigh  are  modifiers  of  the 

\  jamet  I      subject  ;    the  first    word    telling 
^*  whose  favorite  is  meant,  the  sec- 

ond what  favorite.      EUzahetli's  favorite,   Raleigh  is  the  modified 
subject. 

2.  The  best  features  of  King  James's  translation  of  the  Bible  are 
derived  from  Tyndale's  version. 

3.  St.  Paul,  the  apostle,  was  beheaded  in  the  reign  of  Nero. 

4.  A  fool's  bolt  is  soon  shot. 

5.  The  tadpole,  or  polliwog,  becomes  a  frog, 

6.  An  idle  brain  is  the  devil's  workshop. 

7.  Mahomet,  or  Mohammed,  was  born  in  the  year  569  and  died  in 
632. 

8.  They  scaled  Mount  Blanc — a  daring  feat. 

Theu    I    scaUd     ,  3fount  Bla?ic  /    feat     \ 

Explanation. — Feat  is  explanatory  of  the  sentence,  They  scaled  Mount 
Mane,  and  in  the  diagram  it  stands,  enclosed  in  curves,  on  a  short  line 
placed  after  the  sentence  line, 

9.  Bees  communicate  to  each  other  *  the  death  of  the  queen,  by  a 
rapid  interlacing  of  the  antennae. 

Explanation. — Each  other  may  be  treated  as  one  term,  or  each 
may  be  made  explanatory  of  hees. 

10.  The  lamp  of  a  man's  life  has  three  wicks — brain,  blood,  and 
breath. 

*  For  uses  of  each  other  and  one  another,  see  Lesson  124. 


Composition— Nouns  as  Adjective  Modifiers.  59 


^Explanation. — Several  words  may  together  be  explanatory  of  one. 

11.  The  turtle's  back-bone  and  breast-bone — its  shell  and  coat  of 
armor — are  on  the  outside  of  its  body. 


12.  Cromwell's  rule  as  Protector  began  in  the  year  1653  and  ended 
In  1658. 

Explanation. — As,  namely,  to  wit,  viz.,  i.  e.,  e.  g.,  and  that  »smay 
introduce  explanatory  modifiers,  but  they  do  not  seem  to  connect 
them  to  the  words  modified.  In  the  diagram  they  stand  like  as  in 
Lesson  30.     Protector  is  explanatory  of  CromwelVs. 

13.  In  the  latter  half  of  the  eighteenth  century,  three  powerful 
nations,  namely,  Russia,  Austria,  and  Prussia,  united  for  the  dismem- 
berment of  Poland. 

14.  John,  the  beloved  disciple,  lay  on  his  Master's  breast 

15.  The  petals  of  the  daisy,  day's-eye,  close  at  night  and  in  rainj- 
weather. 


LESSON    34. 

COMPOSITION-NOUNS    AS    ADJECTIVE    MODIFIERS. 

COMMA -- RULE.  —  An  Explanatory  Modifier,  when  it 
does  not  restrict  the  modified  term  or  comhine  closely  with 
it,  is  set  off*  by  the  comma. 

Explanation. — The  words  I  and  0  should  he  written  in  capital 

*  See  foot-note,  Lesson  18. 


60  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


letters.  The  phrase  /  and  0  restricts  words,  that  is,  limits  its  appli- 
cation, and  no  comma  is  needed; 

JacoVs  favorite  sons,  Joseph  and  Benjamin,  were  RacheVs  children. 
The  phrase  Joseph  and  Benjamin  explains  sons  without  restricting, 
and  therefore  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma. 

In  each  of  these  expressions,  I  myself,  we  hoys,  William  the  Con- 
queror, the  explanatory  term  combines  closely  with  the  word 
explained,  and  no  comma  is  needed. 

Direction. — Give  the  reasons  for  the  insertion  or  the  omission  of 
commas  in  these  sentences: — 

1.  My  brother  Henry  and  my  brother  George  belong  to  a  boat- 
club. 

2.  The  author  of  Pilgrim's  Progress,  John  Bunyan,  was  the  son 
of  a  tinker. 

3.  Shakespeare,  the  great  dramatist,  was  careless  of  his  literary 
reputation. 

4.  The  conqueror  of  Mexico,  Cortez,  was  cruel  in  his  treatment  of 
Montezuma.  '' 

5.  Pizarro,  the  conqueror  of  Peru,  was  a  Spaniard. 

6.  The  Emperors  Napoleon  and  Alexander  met  and  became  fast 
friends  on  a  raft  at  Tilsit. 

Direction. — Insert  commas  heloiv,  ivhere  they  are  needed,  and  give 
your  reasons  : — 

1.  The  Franks  a  warlike  people  of  Germany  gave  their  name  to 
France. 

2.  My  son  Joseph  .has  entered  college. 

3.  You  blocks  !     You  stones  I     0  you  hard  hearts  ! 

4.  Mecca  a  city  in  Arabia  is  sacred  in  the  eyes  of  Mohammedans. 

5.  He  himself  could  not  go. 

6.  The  poet  Spenser  lived  in  the  reign  of  Elizabeth. 

7.  Elizabeth,  Queen  of  England  ruled  from  1558  to  1603. 


Composition— Nouns  as  Adjective  Modifiers.  61 


Direction. — Compose  sentences  containing  these  expressions  as 
explanatory  modifiers : — 

The  most  useful  metal  ;  the  capital  of  Turkey  ;  the  Imperial  City  ; 
the  great  English  poets  ;  the  hermit  ;  a  distinguished  American 
statesman. 

Direction. — Punctuate  these  expressions,  and  employ  each  of  them 
in  a  sentence : — 

See  Remark,  Lesson  21.     Omit  or,  and  note  the  effect. 

1.  Palestine  or  the  Holy  Land, .     2.  New  York  or  the  Empire 

State,— — .     3.  New  Orleans ^or  the  Crescent  City .     4.  The  five 

Books  of  Moses  or  the  Pentateuch. . 

Remember  that  (*s)  and  {*)  are  the  possessive  signs — 
(')  being  used  when  s  has  been  added  to  denote  more  than 
one,  and  ('«)  in  other  cases. 

Direction. — Copy  the  following,  and  note  the  use  of  the  possessive 
sign : — 

The  lady's  fan ;  the  girl's  bonnet ;  a  dollar's  worth ;  Burns's  poems ; 
Brown  &  Co.'s  business  ;  a  day's  work  ;  men's  clothing  ;  children's 
toys  ;  those  girls'  dresses  ;  ladies'  calls  ;  three  years'  interest  ;  five 
dollars'  worth. 

Direction. — Make  possessive  modifiers  of  the  following  ivords,  and 
join  them  to  appropriate  nouris : — 

Woman,  women  ;  mouse,  mice  ;  buffalo,  buffaloes  ;  fairy,  fairies  ; 
hero,  heroes  ;  baby,  babies  ;  calf,  calves. 

Caution. — Do  not  use  (^s)  or  {')  with  the  pronouns  its, 
his,  ours,  yours,  hers,  theirs. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    35. 

NOUNS   AS    ADVERB    MODIFIERS. 

Introductory  Hints. — He  gave  me  a  hook.  Here  we  have  what 
many  grammarians  call  a  double  object.  Book,  naming  the  thing 
acted  upon,  they  call  the  direct  object  ;  and  me,  naming  the  person 
toward  whom  the  act  is  directed,  they  call  the  indirect,  or  dative^ 
object. 

You  see  that  me  and  book  do  not,  like  CornwalUs  and  army,  in 
Washington  captured  CornwalUs  and  his  army,  form  a  compound 
object  complement  ;  they  cannot  be  connected  by  a  conjunction,  for 
they  do  not  stand  in  the  same  relation  to  the  verb  gave.  The  meaning 
is  not,  He  gave  me  a^w^  the  book. 

We  treat  these  indirect  objects,  which  generally  denote  the  person 
to  or  for  whom  something  is  done,  as  equivalent  to  phrase  modifiers. 
If  we  change  the  order  of  the  words,  a  preposition  must  be  supplied  ; 
as,  He  gave  a  book  to  me.  He  bought  me  a  book ;  He  bought  a  book 
for  me.  He  asked  me  a  question ;  He  asked  a  question  of  me.  When 
the  indirect  object  precedes  the  direct,  no  preposition  is  expressed  or 
understood. 

Teach,  tell,  send,  promise,  permit,  and  lend  are  other  examples  of 
verbs  that  take  indirect  objects. 

Besides  these  indirect  objects,  nouns  denoting  measure,  quan- 
tity, weight,  time,  value,  distance,  or  direction  are  often  used  adverbi- 
ally, being  equivalent  to  phrase  modifiers.  We  walked  four  miles  an 
hour ;  It  weighs  one  pound ;  It  is  worth  a  dollar  a  yard ;  I  went 
home  that  way ;  The  wall  is  ten  feet  six  inches  high. 

The  idiom  of  the  language  does  not  often  admit  a  preposition  before 
nouns  denoting  measure,  direction,  etc.  In  your  analysis  you  need 
uot  supply  one. 


Review.  ■         63 


Analysis. 

1.  They  offered  Csesar  the  crown  three  times. 
They    ^offered     ,  crown  oral    Analysis.  —  CcEsar  and    times 

are  nouns  used  adverbially,  being  equiv- 
alent to  adverb  phrases  modifying  the 
%       predicate  offered. 

2.  We  pay  the  President  of  the  United  States  $50,000  a  year. 

3.  He  sent  his  daughter  home  that  way. 

4.  I  gave  him  a  dollar  a  bushel  for  his  wheat,  and  ten  cents  a 
pound  for  his  sugar. 

5.  Shakespeare  was  fifty-two  years  old  the  very  day  of  his  death. 

6.  Serpents  cast  their  skin  once  a  year. 

7.  The  famous  Charter  Oak  of  Hartford,  Conn.,  fell  Aug.  31,  1856. 

8.  Good  land  should  yield  its  owner  seventy-five  bushels  of  corn 
an  acre. 

9.  On  the  fatal  field  of  Zutphen,  Sept.  22,  1586,  his  attendants 
brought  the  wounded  Sir  Philip  Sidney  a  cup  of  cold  water. 

10.  He  magnanimously  gave  a  dying  soldier  the  water. 

11.  The  frog  lives  several  weeks  as  a  fish,  and  breathes  by  means 
of  gills. 

12.  Queen  Esther  asked  King  Ahasuerus  a  favor, 

13.  Aristotle  taught  Alexander  the  Great  philosophy. 

14.  The  pure  attar  of  roses  is  worth  twenty  or  thirty  dollars  an  ounce. 

15.  Puff-balls  have  grown  six  inches  in  diameter  in  a  single  night. 


LESSON    36. 

REVIEW. 

To  THE  Teacher.— See  suggestions,  Lesson  16. 

Direction. — Review  from  Lesson  28  to  Lesson  35,  inclusive. 

Give  the  substance  of  the  "Introductory  Hints"  (for  example,  show 


64  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


clearly  what  two  things  are  essential  to  a  complete  predicate  ;  explain 
what  is  meant  by  a  complement  ;  distinguish  clearly  the  three  kinds 
of  complements  ;  show  what  parts  of  speech  may  be  employed  for 
each,  and  tell  what  general  idea — action,  quality,  class,  or  identity — 
is  expressed  by  each  attribute  complement  or  objective  complement 
in  your  illustrations,  etc.).  Repeat  and  illustrate  definitions  and 
rules  ;  explain  and  illustrate  fully  the  distinction  between  an  adjec- 
tive complement  and  an  adverb  modifier  ;  illustrate  what  is  taught 
of  the  forms  I,  we,  etc.,  me,  tis,  etc.;  explain  and  illustrate  the  use 
of  the  possessive  sign. 


Exercises  on  the  Composition  of  the  Sentence  and  the 
Paragraph. 

(See  pages  156-159.) 
To  THE  Teacher.— See  suggestions  to  the  teacher,  pages  30,  150.  '' 


LESSON    37. 

VERB    FORMS    WITH    ADJECTIVAL    USE    AND     THOSE 
WITH    NOUNAL. 

Introductory  Hints. — Corn  grows;  Corn  growing.  Here  grow- 
ing differs  from  grows  in  lacking  the  power  to  assert.  Growing  is  a 
form  of  the  verb  that  cannot,  like  grows,  make  a  complete  predicate 
because  it  only  assumes  or  implies  that  the  corn  does  the  act.  Corn 
may  be  called  the  assumed  subject  of  growing. 

Birds,  singing,  delight  us.  Here  singing  does  duty  (1)  as  an  adjec- 
tive, describing  birds  by  assuming  or  implying  an  act,  and  (2)  as  a 
verb  by  expressing  the  act  of  singing  as  going  on  at  the  time  birds 
delight  us. 

By  singing  their  songs   birds  delight  us.     Here  singing  has   the 


Verbs  as  Adjectives  and  as  Nouns— Participles.         65 


nature  of  a  verb  and  that  of  a  noun.  As  a  verb  it  has  an  object 
complement,  songs;  and  as  a  noun  it  names  the  act,  and  stands  as 
the  principal  word  in  a  prepositional  phrase. 

Their  singing  so  sweetly  delights  us.  Here,  also,  singing  has  the 
nature  of  a  verb  and  that  of  a  noun.  As  a  verb  it  has  an  adverb 
modifier,  sweetly,  and  as  a  noun  it  names  an  act  and  takes  a  possess- 
ive modifier. 

This  form  of  the  verb  is  called  the  Participle  (Lat.  pars,  a  part, 
and  capere,  to  take)  because  it  partakes  of  two  natures  and  performs 
two  oiftces — those  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective,  or  those  of  a  verb  and 
a  noun.     (For  definition  see  Lesson  131.) 

Singing  birds  delight  us.  Here  singing  has  lost  its  verbal  nature, 
and  expresses  a  permanent  quality  of  birds — telling  what  kind  of 
birds, — and  consequently  is  a  mere  adjective.  The  singing  of  the 
birds  delights  us.  Here  singing  is  simply  a  noun,  naming  the  act  and 
taking  adjective  modifiers. 

There  are  two  kinds  of  participles  ;  *  one  sharing  the  nature  of  the 

*  Grammarians  are  not  agreed  as  to  what  these  words  that  have  the  nature  of  the 
verb  and  that  of  the  noun  should  be  called.  Some  would  call  the  simple  forms  doing, 
zvriting,  and  injuring,  in  sentences  (1),  (6),  and  (7),  Lesson  38,  Injinitives.  They  would 
also  call  by  the  same  name  such  compound  forms  as  being  accepted,  having  been 
shown,  and  having  said  in  these  expressions  :  "for  the  purpose  of  being  accepted  ;  " 
"  is  the  having  been  shown  over  a  place  ;  ■"  '-I  recollect  his  having  said  that."  But 
does  it  not  tax  even  credulity  to  believe  that  a  simple  Anglo-Saxon  infinitive  in  -an, 
only  one  form  of  which  followed  a  preposition,  and  that  always  to,  could  have 
developed  into  many  compound  forms,  used  in  both  voices,  following  almost  any  prep- 
osition, and  modified  by  the  and  by  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  possessive  ?  No  wonder 
the  grammarian  Mason  says,  "  An  infinitive  in  -i7ig,  set  down  by  some  as  a  modifi- 
cation of  the  simple  infinitive  in  -an  or  -en.  is  a  perfectly  unwarranted  invention." 

Others  call  these  words  modernized  forms  of  the  Anglo-Saxon  Verbal  Nouns  in 

-ung,  -ing.    But  this  derivation  of  them  encounters  the  stubborn  fact  that  those  verbal 

nouns  never  were  compound,  and  never  were  or  could  be  followed  by  objects.    These 

words,  on  the  contrary,  are  compound,  as  we  have  seen,  and  have  objects.    That  they 

5 


66  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


verb  and  that  of  the  adjective  ;  the  other,  the  nature  of  the  verb  and 
that  of  the  noun.     Participles  commonly  end  in  ing,  ed,  or  en. 

The  participle,  like  other  forms  of  the  verb,  may  be  followed  by  an 
object  complement  or  an  attribute  complement. 


are  from  nouns  in  -ung  is  otherwise,  and  almost  for  the  same  reasons,  as  incredible  as 
that  they  are  from  infinitives  in  -an. 

Others  call  these  words  Gerunds.  A  gerund  in  Latin  is  a  simple  form  of  the  verb 
in  the  active  voice,  never  found  in  the  nominative,  and  never  in  the  accusative  (objec- 
tive) after  a  verb.  A  gerund  in  Anglo-Saxon  is  a  simple  form  of  the  verb  in  the  active 
voice— the  dative  case  of  the  infinitive  merely— used  mainly  to  indicate  purpose,  and 
always  preceded  by  the  preposition  to.  To  call  these  words  in  question  gerunds  is  to 
stretch  the  term  gerund  immensely  beyond  its  meaning  in  Anglo-Saxon,  and  make  it 
cover  words  which  sometimes  (1)  are  highly  compounded  ;  sometimes  (2)  are  used  in 
the  passive  voice  ;  sometimes  (3)  follow  other  prepositions  than  to  ;  sometimes  (4)  do 
not  follow  any  preposition  ;  sometimes  (5)  are  objects  of  verbs  ;  sometimes  (6)  are  sub- 
jects of  verbs  ;  sometimes  (7)  are  modified  by  the  ;  sometimes  (8)  are  modified  by  a 
noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive ;  and  generally  (9)  do  not  indicate  purpose.  We 
submit  that  the  extension  of  a  class  term  so  as  to  include  words  having  these  relations 
that  the  Anglo-Saxon  gerund  never  had,  is  not  warranted  by  any  precedent  except  that 
furnished  above  in  the  extension  of  the  term  infinitive  or  of  the  term  verbal  noun! 

Still  others  call  some  of  these  words  Infinitives  ;  some  of  them  Verbal  Nouns  ;  and 
some  of  them  Gerunds. 

Though  some  of  these  forms  in  -ing  may  be  traced  back  to  the  Saxon  verbal  noun 
or  to  the  infinitive,  and  though  the  Saxon  participle  is  adjectival,  we  have,  for  con- 
venience, used  the  term  participle,  as  many  others  have,  to  denote  all  verbal  forms  (ex- 
cept infinitives)  that  partake  of  two  natures. 

But,  if  different  names  for  words  with  an  adjectival  use  and  words  with  a  nounal  be 
preferred,  the  term  Participle  may  be  restricted  to  those  of  the  first  class,  and  a  name 
as  fitly  expressing  their  dual  nature  may  be  found  for  these  of  the  second.  Nounal 
Terb  is  such  a  name. 

To  call  these  forms  in  question  Verbal  Nouns  is  to  classify  them  as  nouns  ;  to  call 
them  Nounal  Verbs  is  to  class  them,  as  grammarians  almost  universally  do,  with  verbs. 
Besides,  the  term  Nounal  Verb  may  help  to  distinguish  between  the  true  represen- 
tatives of  the  old  verbal  nouns  in  -ung  and  the  so-called  "gerunds  "  or  "  infinitives  in 
•ing.'" 


Verbs  with  Adjectival  Use  and  tlnose  with  Nounal.      67 


Analysis  and   Parsing. 
The  participle  may  be  used  as  an  adjective  modifier. 

1.  Hearing  a  step,  I  turned. 

I       turned  Explanation. — The  line  standing  for  the  participle 

^  is  broken ;  one  part  slants  to  represent  the   adjective 

y-ew.y  I  utep  nature  of  the  participle,  and  the  other  is  horizontal  to 

V  represent  its  verbal  nature. 

Oral  Analysis. — The  phrase  hearing  a  step  is  a  modifier  of  the 
subject ;  *  the  principal  word  is  hearing,  which  is  completed  by  the 
noun  step;  step  is  modified  by  a. 

Parsing. — Hearing  is  a  form  of  the  verb  called  participle  because 
the  act  expressed  by  it  is  merely  assumed,  and  it  shares  the  nature  of 
an  adjective  and  that  of  a  verb. 

2.  The  fat  of  the  body  is  fuel  laid  away  for  use. 
Explanation. — The  complement  is  here  modified  by  a  participle 

phrase. 

3.  The  spinal  marrow,  proceeding  from  the  brain,  extends  down- 
ward through  the  back-bone. 

4.  Van  'J'willer  §at  in  a  huge  chair  of  solid  oak,  hewn  in  the  cele- 
brated forest^  of  the  Hague. 

Explanation. — The  principal  word  of  a  prepositional  phrase  is 
here  modified  by  a  participle  phrase. 

5.  Lentulus,  returning  with  victorious  legions,  had  Mmnsed  the 
populace  with  the  sports  of  the  amphitheater. 

The  participle  may  be  used  as  an  attribute  comple- 
ment . 

6.  The  natives  came  crowding  around. 

Explanation. — Crowding  here  completes  the  predicate  camey  and 

*  Logically,  or  in  sense,  hearing  a  step  modifies  the  predicate  also.  I  turned  when 
or  because  I  heard  a  step.    See  Lesson  79. 


68       The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


belongs  to  the  subject  natives.  The  natives  are  represented  as  per- 
forming the  act  of  coming  and  the  accompanying  act  of  crowding. 
The  assertive  force  of  the  predicate  came  seems  to  extend  over  both 
verbs.  * 

7.  The  city  lies  sleeping. 

8.  They  stood  terrified. 

9.  The  philosopher    sat    buried  in 

10.  The  old  miser  kept  grubbing  and  saving  and  starving. 

The  participle  may  be  used  as  an  objective  comple- 
meut. 

11.  He  kept  rae  waiting. 

Explanation. —  Waiting  completes  kept  and  relates  to  the  object 
complement  me.  Kept-waiting  expresses  the  complete  act  performed 
upon  me.  He  kept-waiting  me  =  He  detained  me.  The  relation  of 
waiting  to  me  may  be  seen  by  changing  the  form  of  the  verb  ;  as,  I 
was  kept  waiting.     See  Lesson  31. 

12.  I  found  my  book  growing  dull.f 

*  Some  grammarians  prefer  to  treat  the  participle  in  such  constructions  as  adver- 
bial. But  is  crowding  any  more  adverbial  here  than  are  pale  and  tremblivg  in  "The 
natives  came  paZe  and  trembling  "  ? 

t  It  will  be  seen  by  this  and  following  examples  that  we  extend  the  application  of 
the  term  objective  camjdement  beyond  its  primary,  or  factitive,  sense.  In  "  I  struck  the 
man  dead,''  the  condition  expressed  by  dead  is  the  result  of  the  act  expressed  by  struck. 
In  "I  found  the  man  dead,""  the  condition  is  not  the  result  of  the  act,  and  so  gram- 
marians say  that  in  this  second  example  dead  should  be  treated  simply  as  an  "  appoei- 
tive  "  adjective  modifying  man.  While  dead  does  not  belong  to  man  as  expressing 
the  result  of  the  act,  it  is  made  to  belong  to  man  through  the  asserting  force  of  the 
verb,  and  therefore  is  not  a  mere  modifier  of  man.  Dead  helps /ownc?  to  express  the 
act.    TSot  found,  hnt  found-dead  tells  what  was  done  to  the  man. 

If  we  put  the  sentence  in  the  passive  form,  "  The  man  was  found  dead,""  it  will  be 


Participles— Contlnuecf.  69 


\ 


Explanation.— The  diagram  represent- 

\f^fna  ^.  dull  ,        jjjg  ^Yie  phrase  complement  is  drawu  above 

T       f      ^         1         ft^T.      the  complement  line,  on  which  it  is  made 

1   "^  ^  /\    I  —  ^^  ^^^^  j^y  means  of  a  support.     All  that 

\  stands  on  the  complement  line  is  regarded 
as  the  complement.  Notice  that  the  little  mark  before  the  phrase  points 
toward  the  object  complement.  The  adjective  dull  completes  growing  and 
belongs  to  book,  the  assumed  subject  of  growing. 

13.  He  owned  himself  defeated. 

14.  No  one  ever  saw  fat  men  heading  a  riot  or  herding  together 
in  turbulent  mobs. 

15.  I  felt  my  heart  beating  faster. 

16.  You  may  imagine  me  sitting  there. 

17.  Saul,  seeking  his  father's  asses,  found  himself  suddenly  turned 
into  a  king.  


LESSON     38. 

PARTICIPLES   (NOUNAL   VERBS)-CONTINUED. 
Analysis  and  Parsing. 
The   participle    may  be  used  as  principal  word  in  a 
prepositional  phrase. 

seen  that  dead  is  more  than  a  mere  modifier  ;  it  belongs  to  man  through  the  assertive 
force  of  jvas  found.  If  dead  is  here  merely  an  "  appositive  "  adjective,  "  I  found  the 
man  dead  "  must  equal  "  I  found  the  man,  who  was  dead  "  (or,  "  and  he  was  dead ""). 
The  two  sentences  obviously  are  not  equal.  "  I  caught  him  asleep  "  does  not  mean, 
"  I  caught  him,  and  he  was  asleep." 

If,  in  the  construction  discussed  above,  dead  is  an  objective  complement,  quiet, 
stirring,  and  (to)  stir  in  the  following  sentences  are  objective  complements : — 

I  saw  the  leaves  quiet. 
I  saw  the  leaves  stirring. 
I  saw  the  leaves  stir. 

The  adjective,  the  participle,  and  the  infinitive  do  not  here  seem  to  differ  essen- 
tially in  office.    See  Lesson  31  and  page  78. 


70  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


1.  We  receive  good  by  doing  good. 

We  .   receive    ,   (jood  Explanation.— The  line  representing  the 

^  participle  here  is  broken  ;  the  first  part  repre- 

^^,.  ,        seuts  the  participle  as  a  noun,  and  the  other 

^tnff  ,  good  u 

as  a  verb. 

Oral  Analysis. — The  phrase  by  doing  good  is  a  modifier  of  the 
predicate  ;  by  introduces  the  phrase  ;  the  principal  word  is  doing^ 
which  is  completed  by  the  noun  good. 

Parsing. — Doing  is  a  participle  ;  like  a  noun,  it  follows  the  prepo- 
sition by,  and,  like  a  verb,  it  takes  an  object  complement. 

2.  Poitions  of  the  brain  may  be  cut  off  without  producing  any  pain. 

3.  The  Coliseum  was  once  capable  of  seating  ninety  thousand  per- 
sons. 

4.  Success  generally  depends  on  acting  prudently,  steadily,  and 
vigorously. 

5.  You  cannot  fully  sympathize  with  suffering  without  having  suf- 
fered.    {Suffering  is  here  a  noun.) 

The  participle  may  be  the  principal  word  in  a  phrase 
used  as  a  subject  or  as  an  object  complement. 

6.  Your  writing  that  letter  so  neatly  secured  the  position. 
utter 

Explanation.— The   diagram  of  the 
subject  phrase  is  drawn  above  the  sub- 
^,  ject  line.     All  that  rests  on  the  subject 

■   ^^^^   I — ^^^ ^         \^  line  is  regarded  as  the  subject. 

Oral  Analysis.— The  phrase  your  writing  that  letter  so  neatly  is 
the  subject  ;  the  principal  word  of  it  is  writing,  which  is  completed  by 
letter ;  writing,  as  a  noun,  is  modified  by  your,  and,  as  a  verb,  by  the 
adverb  phrase  so  neatly. 

7.'  We  should  avoid  injuring  the  feelings  of  others. 


Participles— Continued.  71 


8.  My  going  there  will  depend  upon  my  father's  giving  his  consents 

9.  Good  reading  aloud  is  a  rare  accomplishment. 

The  participial  form  may  be  used  as  a  mere  noun  or 
a  mere  adjective. 

10.  The  cackling  of  geese  sa^JB^Rome. 

11.  Such  was  the  exciting  campaign,  celebrated  in  many*  a  long- 
forgotten  song. 

Explanation. — Many  modifies  \png  after  song  has  been  limited  by 
a  and  long-forgotten. 

12.  All  silencing  of  discussion  is  in  assumption  of  infallibility. 

13.  He  was  a  squeezing,  grasping,  Aardened  old  sinner. 

The  participle  may  be  used  in  independent  or  abso- 
lute phrases. 

14.  The  bridge  at  Ashtabula  giving  way,  the  train  fell  into  the 
river. 

Explanation. — The  diagram  of  the  absolute  phrase,  which  consists 
of  a  noun  used  independently  with  a  participle,  stands  by  itself.  See 
Tjesson  44. 

15.  Talking  of  exercise,  you  have  heard,  of  course,  of  Dickens's 
•*  constitutionals." 

*  "  Manig  mem  in  Anglo-Saxon  was  used  like  German  mancher  mann^  Latin  rnuh 
Mui  vlr,  and  the  like,  until  tke  thirteenth  century  ;  when  the  article  was  inserted  to 
empha«ae  the  distribution  before  hidicated  by  the  singular  nnmhei."— Prof,  F.  A. 
March. 


72  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    39. 

COMPOSITION-PARTICIPLES. 

COMMA— RULE.— The  Participle  used  as  an  adjective  mod- 
ifier, with  the  words  belonging  to  it,  is  set  off*  hy  the  comma 
unless  restrictive. 

Explanation. — A  bird,  lighting  near  my  window,  greeted  me  with 
a  song.  The  bird  sitting  on  the  wall  is  a  wren.  Lighting  describes 
without  restricting  ;  sitting  restricts — limits  the  application  of  bird 
to  a  particular  bird. 

Direction. — Justify  the  punctuation  of  the  participle  phrases  in 
Lesson  37. 

Caution. — In  using  a  participle,  be  careful  to  leave  no 
doubt  as  to  what  you  intend  it  to  modify. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  in  arrangement,  and  punctuate, 
giving  your  reasons : — 

1.  A  gentleman  will  let  his  house  going  abroad  for  the  summer  to 
a  small  family  containing  all  the  improvements. 

2.  The  town  contains  fifty  houses  and  one  hundred  inhabitants  built 
of  brick. 

3.  Suits  ready  made  of  material  cut  by  an  experienced  tailor  hand- 
somely trimmed  and  bought  at  a  bargain  are  oifered  cheap. 

4.  Seated  on  the  topmost  branch  of  a  tall  tree  busily  engaged  in 
gnawing  an  acorn  we  espied  a  squirrel. 

5.  A  poor  child  was  found  in  the  streets  by  a  wealthy  and  benevo- 
lent gentleman  suffering  from  cold  and  hunger. 

*  An  expression  in  the  body  of  a  sentence  is  set  off  by  two  commas ;  at  the  beg^- 
mng  or  at  the  end,  by  one  comma. 


Verbs  as  Nouns— Infinitives.  73 


Direction. — Recast  these  sentences,  making  the  reference  of  the 
participle  clear,  and  punctuating  correctly : — 

Model. — Climhing  to   the  top  of  the  hill  the  Atlantic  ocean  was 
seen.     Incorrect  because  it  appears  that  the  ocean  did  the  climbing. 
Climhing  to  the  top  of  the  hill,  we  saw  the  Atlantic  ocean, 

1.  Entering  the  next  room  was  seen  a  marble  statue  of  Apollo. 

2.  By  giving  him  a  few  hints  he  was  prepared  to  do  the  work  well. 

3.  Desiring  an  early  start  the  horse  was  saddled  by  five  o'clock. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  each  of  these  three  parti- 
ciples shall  he  used  as  an  adjective  modifier,  as  the  principal  word 
in  a  prepositional  phrase,  as  the  principal  word  in  a  phrase  used  as 
a  subject  or  as  an  ohject  complement,  as  a  mere  adjective,  as  a  mere 
noun,  and  in  an  absolute  phrase  : — 

Buzzing,  leaping,  waving. 


LESSON    40. 

VERBS    AS    NOUNS-INFINITIVES. 

Introductory  Hints. — /  came  to  see  you.  Here  the  verb  see,  like 
the  participle,  lacks  asserting  power — I  to  see  asserts  nothing.  See, 
following  the  preposition  to,*  names  the  act  and  is  completed  by 
you,  and  so  does  duty  as  a  noun  and  as  a  verb.  In  ofBce  it  is 
like  the  second  kind  of  participles,  described  in  Lesson  37,  and  from 
many  grammarians  has  received  the  same  name — some  calling  both 
gerunds,  and  others  calling  both  infinitives.  It  differs  from  this 
participle  in  form,  and  in  following  only  the  preposition  to.  Came 
to  see  =  came  for  seeing. 

This  form  of  the  verb  is  frequently  the  principal  word  of  a  phrase 

*  For  the  dlscuBsion  of  to  with  the  infinitive,  see  Lesson  134. 


74  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


used  as  a  subject  or  as  an  object  complement  ;  as,  To  read  good 
books  is  profitable  ;  I  like  to  read  good  boohs.  Here  also  the  form  with 
to  is  equivalent  to  the  participle  form  reading.  Reading  good  hooks 
is  profitable. 

As  this  form  of  the  verb  names  the  action  in  an  indefinite  way, 
without  limiting  it  to  a  subject,  we  call  it  the  Infinitive  (Lat.  infi- 
nitus,  without  limit).  For  definition,  see  Lesson  131.  The  infinitive, 
like  the  participle,  may  have  what  is  called  an  assumed  subject.  The 
assumed  subject  denotes  that  to  which  the  action  or  being  expressed 
by  the  participle  or  the  infinitive  belongs. 

Frequently  the  infinitive  phrase  expresses  purpose,  as  in  the  first 
example  given  above,  and  in  such  cases  to  expresses  relation,  and  per- 
forms its  full  function  as  a  preposition  ;  but,  when  the  infinitive  phrase 
is  used  as  subject  or  as  object  complement,  the  to  expresses  no  rela- 
tion. It  serves  only  to  introduce  the  phrase,  and  in  no  way  affects  the 
meaning  of  the  verb. 

The  infinitive,  like  other  forms  of  the  verb,  may  be  followed  by  the 
different  complements. 


Analysis   and    Parsing. 
The   infinitive   phrase   may  be  used  as  an  adjective 
modifier  or  an  adverb  modifier. 

1.  The  hot-house  is  a  trap  to  catch  sunbeams. 

Oral  Analysis. —  To  in- 

Tiot-Tfouse    ,    is   ^   trap 

y,       I  \^    \  troduces  the  phrase  ;  catch 

\  V  is  the  principal  word,  and 

\    catch    I   mnheatm 

sunbeams  completes  it. 

Parsing. —  To  is  a  preposition,  introducing  the  phrase  and  showing 
the  relation,  in  sense,  of  the  principal  word  to  trap  ;  catch  is  a  form 
of  the  verb  called  injinitive  ;  like  a  noun,  it  follows  the  preposition  to 


Verbs  as  Nouns— Infinitives.  75 


and  names  the  action,   and,   like  a  verb,   it    is  completed  by  sun- 
beams. 

2.  Richelieu's  title  to  command  rested  on  sublime  force  of  will  and 
decision  of  character. 

3.  Many  of  the  attempts  to  assassinate  William  the  Silent  were 
defeated. 

4.  We  will  strive  to  please  you. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  phrase  is  here  used  adverbially  to 
modify  the  predicate. 

5.  Ingenious  Art  steps  forth  to  fashion  and  refine  the  race. 

6.  These  harmless  delusions  tend  to  make  us  happy. 
Explanation. — Happy  completes  make  and  relates  to  us. 

7    Wounds  made  by  words  are  hard  to  heal. 
Explanation. — The  infinitive  phrase  is  here  used  adverbially  to 
modify  the  adjective  hard.     To  heal  =  to  be  healed. 

8.  The  representative  Yankee,  selling  his  farm,  wanders  away  to 
seek  new  lands,  to  clear  new  cornfields,  to  build  another  shingle  pal- 
ace, and  again  to  sell  off  and  wander. 

9.  These  apples  are  not  ripe  enough  to  eat. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  phrase  is  here  used  adverbially  to 
modify  the  adverb  enough.     To  eat  =  to  be  eaten. 

The    infinitive    phrase   may   be   used   as   subject    or 
complement. 

10.  To  be  good  is  to  be  great. 

\  Explanation.— To,    in    each    of    these 

food      \  be   -^  great      phrases,  shows  no  relation — it  serves  merely 

to  introduce.     The   complements  good  and 

is  >v     y^  great  are  adjectives  used  abstractly,  having 

no  noun  to  relate  to. 


\ 


11.  To  bear  our  fate  is  to  conquer  it. 


76  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


12.  To  be  entirely  just  in  our  estimate  of  others  is  impossible. 

13.  The  noblest  vengeance  is  to  forgive. 

14.  He  seemed  to  be  innocent. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  phrase  here  performs  the  office  of 
an  adjective.     To  he  innocent  =  innocent, 

15.  The  blind  men's  dogs  appeared  to  know  him. 

16.  We  should  learn  to  govern  ourselves. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive   phrase  is  here  used  as  an   object 
complement. 

17.  Each  hill  attempts  to  ape  her  voice. 


LESSON    41. 

INFINITIVES-CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
The  infinitive   phrase   may   be   used   after  a  prepo- 
sition as  the  principal  term  of  another  phrase. 

1.  My  friend  is  about  to  leave  me. 

\  V 

Va.    \   leave   \  me 

^    \   j  Explanation.  —  The  preposition  about 

T    y\  introduces    the    phrase    used    as    attribute 

I  complement ;  the  principal  part  is  the  in= 

fHend        is    ^     y\  finitive  phrase  to  leave  me. 

2.  Paul  was  now  about  to  open  his  mouth. 

3.  No  way  remains  but  to  go  on. 

Explanation. — But  is  here  a  preposition. 

The  infinitive  and  its  assumed  subject  may  form 
the  principal  term  in  a  phrase  introduced  by  the  prep- 
osition for. 


Infinitives— Continued.  77 


4.  For  us  to  know  our  faults  is  profitable. 


Explanation. — For   introckices   the 

f  Tmow    I    faults  subject   phrase  ;    the  principal  part  of 

'^  the  entire  phrase  is  us  to  know  our  faults; 


ItC/<)  ,     is 


the  principal  word  is  us,  which  is  modi- 
y\    I    is    V    profitable         fied  by  the  phrase  to  know  our  faults. 

5.  God  never  made  his  work  for  man  to  mend. 

Explanation. — The  principal  term  of  the  phrase  for  man  to  mend 
is  not  man,  but  man  to  mend. 

6.  For  a  man  to  be  proud  of  his  learning  is  the  greatest  ignorance. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  an  explaua- 
tory  modifier. 

7.  It  is  easy  to  find  fault. 

\  Explanation.— The  infinitive   phrase  to 

jirvd   I  fault  find  fault  explains  the  subject  it.    Read  the 

'  sentence  without  it,  and  you  will  see  tlie  real 

■     ..,    ^    mstf  nature  of  the  phrase.      This  use  of  it  as  a 

substitute  for  the  real  subject  is  a  very 
common  idiom  of  our  language.  It  allows  the  real  subject  to  follow 
the  verb,  and  thus  gives  the  sentence  balance  of  parts. 

8.  It  is  not  the  way  to  argue  down  a  vice  to  tell  lies  about  it. 

9.  It  is  natural  to  man  to  indulge  in  the  illusions  of  hope. 

10.  It  is  not  all  of  life  to  live. 

11.  This  task,  to  teach  the  young,  may  become  delightful. 

The  infinitive  phrase  may  be  used  as  objective 
complement. 

12.  He  made  me  wait. 

Explanation. — The  infinitive  wait  (here  used  without  to)  com- 
pletes made  and  relates  to  me.     He  made-wait  me  =  He  detained  me. 

See  **  Introductory  Hints,"  Lesson  31,  and  participles  used  as  ob- 
jective complements.  Lesson  37.    Compare  I  saw  him  do  it  with  I  saw 


"78  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Mm  doing  it.  Compare  also  'He  made  the  stick  bend — equaling  He 
^made-bend  (=  bent)  the  stick — with  He  made  the  stick  straight — equal- 
ing He  made-straight  {=  straightened)  the  stick. 

The  relation  of  these  objective  complements  to  me,  him,  and  stick 
-may  be  more  clearly  seen  by  changing  the  form  of  the  verb,  thus  :  I 
was  made  to  wait ;  He  was  seen  to  do  it,  He  was  seen  doing  it ;  The 
•stick  was  made  to  bend;  The  stick  was  made  straight. 

13.  We  found  the  report  to  be  true.* 


We  ,   found    ^   /\    ,     report 

14.  He  commanded  the  bridge  to  be  lowered. f 

15.  I  saw  the  leaves  stir.:}: 

Explanation. — Stir  is  an  infinitive  without  the  to, 

16.  Being  persuaded  by  Poppasa,  Nero  caused  his  mother,  Agrip- 
•pina,  to  be  assassinated. 

*  Some  prefer  to  treat  the  report  to  he  true  as  an  object  clause  because  it  is  equiva- 
lent to  the  clause  that  the  report  is  true.  But  many  expressions  logically  equivalent 
are  entirely  different  in  grammatical  construction  ;  as,  I  desire  his  promotion  ;  I  desire 
him  to  be  promoted  ;  I  desire  that  he  shotcld  be  promoted.  Besides,  to  teach  that  him 
'is  the  subject,  and  to  be  promoted  the  predicate,  of  a  clause  would  certainly  be 
confusing. 

t  Notice  the  difference  in  construction  between  this  sentence  and  the  sentence  He 
commanded  him  to  lower  the  bridge.  Him  represents  the  one  to  whom  the  command 
is  given,  and  to  lower  the  bridge  is  the  object  complement.  This  last  sentence  =  He 
commanded  him  that  he  should  lower  the  bridge.  Compare  He  told  me  to  go  with  He 
iold  (to)  me  a  story  ;  also  He  taught  me  to  read  with  He  taiight  (to)  me  reading. 

In  such  sentences  as  (13)  and  (14)  it  may  not  always  be  expedient  to  demand  that 
the  pupil  shall  trace  the  exact  relations  of  the  infinitive  phrase  to  the  preceding  noun 
and  to  the  predicate  verb.  If  preferred,  in  such  cases,  the  infinitive  and  its  assumed 
Bubject  may  be  treated  as  a  kind  of  phrase  object,  equivalent  to  a  clause.  This  con- 
struction is  similar  to  the  Latin  "  accusative  with  the  infinitive." 

X  See  pages  68  and  69,  foot-note. 


Infinitives— Continued.  79 


LESSON    42. 

INFINITIVES-CONTINUED. 

Analysis. 

The  infinitive   phrase  may  be  used  independently.* 

E]xplanation. — In  the  diagram    the    independent    element  must 
stand  by  itself. 

1.  England's  debt,  to  put  it  in  round  numbers,  is  $4,000,000,000. 

2.  Every  object  has  several  faces,  so  to  speak. 

3.  To  make  a  long  story  short,  Louis  XVI.  and  Marie  Antoinette 
were  executed. 

Infinitives  and  Participles. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

4.  It  is  a  good  thing  to  give  thanks  unto  the  Lord. 

5.  We  require  clothing  in  the  summer  to  protect  the  body  from 
the  heat  of  the  sun. 

6.  Rip  Van  Winkle  could   not   account  for  everything's  having 
changed  so. 

7.  This  sentence  is  not  too  difficult  for  me  to  analyze. 

8.  The  fog  came  pouring  in  at  every  chink  and  keyhole, 

9.  Conscience,  her  first  law  broken,  wounded  lies. 

10.  To  be,  or  not  to  be, — that  is  the  question. 

11.  I  supposed  him  to  be  a  gentleman. 

12.  Food,  keeping  the  body  in  health  by  making  it  warm  and  re- 
pairing its  waste,  is  a  necessity. 

13.  I  will  teach  you  the  trick  to  prevent  your  being  cheated  another 
time. 

*  These  infinitive  phrases  can  be  expanded  into  dependent  clauses.    See  Lesson  79. 
For  the  infinitive  after  as,  than,  etc.,  see  Lesson  63.    Participles  and  infinitiveg 
unite  with  other  verbs  to  make  compound  forms  ;  as,  have  walked,  shall  walk. 


80  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


14.  She  threatened  to  go  beyond  the  sea,  to  throw  herself  out  of  tlie 
window,  to  drown  herself. 

15.  Busied  with  public  affairs,  the  council  would  sit  for  hours  smok- 
ing and  watching  the  smoke  curl  from  their  pipes  to  the  ceiling. 


LESSON    43. 

COMPOSITION-THE    INFINITIVE. 

Direction. — Change  the  infinitives  in  these  sentences  into  parti- 
ciples, and  the  participles  into  infinitives : — 

Notice  that  to,  the  only  preposition  used  with  the  infinitive,  is 
'changed  to  toward,  for,  of,  at,  in,  or  on,  when  the  infinitive  is 
changed  to  a  participle. 

1.  I  am  inclined  to  believe  it.  6.  There  is  a  time  to  laugh. 

2.  I  am  ashamed  to  be  seen  there.    7.  I  rejoice  to  hear  it. 

3.  She  will  be  grieved  to  hear  it.       8.  You  are  prompt  to  obey. 

4.  They    trembled    to    hear   such      9.  They  delight  to  do  it. 

words.  10.  I  am  surprised  at  seeing  you. 

5.  It  will  serve  for  amusing  the    11.  Stones  are  used  in  ballasting 

children.  vessels. 

Direction. — Improve  these  sentences  hy  changing  the  participles 
into  infinitives,  and  the  infinitives  into  participles : — 

1.  We     began    ascending    the    3.  I  commenced  to  write  a  letter. 

mountain.  4.  It  is  inconvenient  being  poor. 

2.  He  did  not   recollect  to   have    5.  It  is  not  wise  complaining. 

paid  it. 
Direction. —  Vary  these  sentences  as  in  the  model: — 
Model. — Rising  early  is  healthful ;   To  rise  early  is  healthful ;  It  is 

healthful  to  rise  early;    For  one  to  rise  early  is  healthful. 

(Notice  that  the  explanatory  phrase  after  it  is  not  set  off  by  the 

comma.) 


Words  and  Phrases  Used  Independently.  81 


1.  Reading  good  books  is  profit-  4.  Indorsing    another's    paper    is 

able.  dangerous. 

2.  Equivocating  is  disgraceful.  5.  Swearing  is  sinful. 

3.  Slandering  is  base. 

Direction. —  Write  nine  sentences,  in  three  of  which  the  infinitive 
phrase  shall  be  used  as  an  adjective,  in  three  as  an  adverb,  and  in 
three  as  a  noun. 

Direction. —  Write  eight  sentences  in  which  these  verbs  shall  be 
followed  by  an  infinitive  without  the  t  o : — 

Model. — We  saw  the  sun  sink  behind  the  mountain. 
Bid,  dare,  feel,  hear,  let,  make,  need,  and  see. 


LESSON    44. 

WORDS  AND  PHRASES  USED  INDEPENDENTLY. 

Introductory  Hints. — In  this  Lesson  we  wish  to  notice  words  and 
phrases  that  in  certain  u^s  have  no  grammatical  connection  with  the 
rest  of  the  sentence. 

The-fault,  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars.  Dear  Brutus  serves 
only  to  arrest  attention,  and  is  independent  by  address. 

Poor  man  !  he  never  came  bach  again.  Poor  man  is  independent  by 
exclamation. 

Thy  rod  and  thy  staff,  they  comfort  me.  Rod  and  staff  simply  call 
attention  to  the  objects  before  anything  is  said  of  them,  and  are  inde- 
pendent by  pleonasm — a  construction  used  sometimes  for  rhetorical 
efltect,  but  out  of  place  in  ordinary  speech. 

His  master  being  absent,  the  business  was  neglected.     His  master 

being  absent  logically  modifies  the  verb  was  neglected  by  assigning  the 

cause,  but  the  phrase  has  no  connective  expressed  or  understood,  and 

is  therefore  grammatically  independent.     This  is  called  the  absolute 

6 


tJ2  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


phrase.  An  absolute  phrase  consists  of  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  used 
independently  with  a  modifying  participle. 

His  conduct,  generally  speaking,  was  honorable.  Speaking  is  a 
participle  without  connection,  and  with  the  adverb  generally  forms  an 
independent  phrase. 

To  confess  the  truth,  I  was  wrong.  The  infinitive  phrase  is  inde- 
pendent. 

The  adverbs  well,  now,  ivhy,  there  are  sometimes  independent  ;  as. 
Well,  life  is  an  enigma  ;  JVow,  that  is  strange  ;  Why,  it  is  already 
noon  ;  There  are  pitch-pine  Yankees  and  white-pine  Yankees. 

Interjections  are  without  grammatical  connection,  as  you  have 
learned,  and  hence  are  independent. 

Whatever  is  enclosed  within  marks  of  parenthesis  is  also  independ- 
ent of  the  rest  of  the  sentence  ;  as,  I  stake  my  fame  {and  I  had 
fame),  my  heart,  my  hope,  my  soul,  upon  this  cast. 


Analysis. 

1.  The  loveliest  things  in  life,  Tom,  are  but  shadows. 
Explanation. — Tom  is  independent  by  address.    But  is  an  adjective 

modifying  shadows. 

2.  There  are  one-story  intellects,  two-story  intellects,  and  three- 
story  intellects  with  skylights. 

Explanation. — Often,  as  in  this  sentence,  there  is  used  idiomatically, 
merely  to  throw  the  subject  after  the  verb,  the  idea  of  place  having 
faded  out  of  the  word.  To  express  place,  another  there  may  follow  the 
predicate  ;    as.   There  is  gold  there. 

3.  Ah  !  then  and  there  was  hurrying  to  and  fro. 

4.  Hope  lost,  all  is  lost. 

5.  The  smith,  a  mighty  man  is  he. 

6.  Why,  this  is  not  revenge. 

7.  Well,  this  is  the  forest  of  Arden. 


Composition— Independent  Words  and  Phrases.         Se, 


8.  Now,  there  is  at  Jerusalem,  by  the  sheep-market,  a  pool. 

9.  To  speak  plainly,  your  habits  are  your  worst  ejiemies. 

10.  No  accident  occurring,  we  shall  arrive  t»-morrow. 

11.  The  teacher  being  sick,  there  was  no  school  Friday. 

12.  Mr.   President,    I  shall    enter  en   no   encomium   upon   Massa- 
chusetts. 

13.  Properly  speaking,  there  can  be  no  chance  in  our  affairs. 

U.  But  the  enemies  of  tyranny — their  path  leads  to  the  scaffold. 

15.  She  (oh,  the  artfulness  of  the  woman  !)   managed  the   matter 

^ ,     .      T,  extremely  well. 

rtfrent       began  •' 

■< — ^\7"  16.  A  day  later  (Oct.  19,  1812)  began  the 

fatal  retreat  of  the  Grand  Army,  from  Mos- 


day 


cow. 


\^  See  Lesson  35. 


LESSON    45. 

COMPOSITION— INDEPENDENT    WORDS    AND 
PHRASES. 

COMMA— RULE.— Words  and  phrases  independent  or  nearly 
«o  are  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Remark. — Interjections,  as  you  have  seen,  are  usually  followed  by 
the  exclamation  point  ;  and  there,  used  merely  to  introduce,  is  never 
set  off  by  the  comma.  When  the  break  after  pleonastic  expressions  is 
slight,  as  in  (5),  Lesson  44,  the  comma  is  used  ;  but,  if  it  is  more 
abrupt,  as  in  (14),  the  dash  is  required.  If  the  independent  expres- 
sion can  be  omitted  without  affecting  the  sense,  it  may  be  enclosed 
within  marks  of  parenthesis,  as  in  (15)  and  (16).  (For  the  uses  of  the 
dash  and  the  marks  of  parenthesis,  see  Lesson  148.) 

Words  and  phrases  nearly  independent  are  those  which,  like  however^ 
of  course,  indeed,  in  short,  hy  the  iye,  for  instance,  and  accordingly,  da 


84  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


not  modify  a  word  or  a  phrase  alone,  but  rather  the  sentence  as  a 
whole  ;  as,  Lee  did  not,  however,  follow  Washington's  orders. 

Direction. —  Write  sentences  illustrating  the  several  kinds  of  inde- 
pendent expressions,  and  punctuate  according  to  the  Rule  as  explained. 

Direction.  —  Write  short  sentences  in  which  these  words  and 
phrases,  used  in  a  mariner  nearly  independent,  shall  occur,  and 
punctuate  them  properly : — 

In  short,  indeed,  now  and  then,  for  instance,  accordingly,  moreover, 
iiowever,  at  least,  in  general,  no  doubt,  by  the  bye,  by  the  way,  then, 
too,  of  course,  in  fine,  namely,  above  all,  therefore. 

Direction.  —  Write  short  sentences  in  which  these  words  shall 
modify  some  particvZar  word  or  phrase  so  closely  as  not  to  he  set  off 
by  the  comma  : — 

Indeed,  surely,  too,  then,  now,  further,  why,  again,  still. 


Exercises  on  the  Composition  of  the  Sentence  and  the 
Paragraph. 

(See  pages   160-162.) 
To  THE  Teacher. —See  suggestions  to  the  teacher,  pages  30, 150. 


LESSON    46. 

SENTENCES    CLASSIFIED    WITH     RESPECT    TO 
MEANING. 

Introductory  Hints. — In  the  previous  Lessons  we  have  considered 
the  sentence  with  respect  to  the  words  and  phrases  composing  it.  Let 
'IS  now  look  at  it  as  a  whole. 

The  mountains  lift  up  their  heads.  This  sentence  is  used  simply  to 
affirm,  or  to  declare  a  fact,  and  is  called  a  Declarative  Sentence. 

Do  the  mountains  lift  up  their  heads  ?  This  sentence  expresses  a 
question,  and  is  called  an  Interrogative  Sentence. 


Sentences  Classified  with  Respect  to  Meaning'.         85 


Lift  up  your  heads.  This  sentence  expresses  a  command,  and  is 
called  an  Imperative  Sentence.  Such  expressions  as  You  must  go^ 
You  shall  go  are  equivalent  to  imperative  sentences,  though  they  have 
not  the  imperative  form. 

How  the  mountains  lift  up  their  heads !  In  this  sentence  the 
thought  is  expressed  with  strong  emotion.  It  is  called  an  Exclama- 
tory Sentence.  How  and  what  usually  introduce  §uch  sentences  ; 
but  a  declarative,  an  interrogative,  or  an  imperative  sentence  may  be- 
come exclamatory  when  the  speaker  uses  it  mainly  to  give  vent  to  his 
feelings  ;  as,  It  is  impossible  I  How  can  I  endure  it  f  Talk  of  hypoc- 
risy after  this  ! 

DEFINITION.— A  Declarative  Sentence  is  one  that  is  used 
to  aflftrm  or  to  deny. 

DEFINITION.— An  Interrogative  Sentence  is  one  that 
expresses  a  question. 

DEFINITION. — An  Imperative  Sentence  is  one  that  ex- 
presses a  command  or  an  entreaty. 

DEFINITION.— An  Exclamatory  Sentence  is  one  that 
expresses  sudden  thought  or  strong  feeling.* 

INTERROGATION  POINT— RULE.— Every  direct  interroga- 
tive  sentence  should  be  followed  by  an  interrogation  point. 

Remark. — When  an  interrogative  sentence  is  made  a  part  of  an- 
other sentence,  it  may  be  direct  ;  as,  He  asked,  ''What  is  the  trouble  f  " 
or  indirect ;  as,  He  asked  what  the  trouble  was.     (See  Lesson  74.) 


Analysis. 
Direction. — Before  analyzing  these  sentences,  classify  them,  and 
justify  the  terminal  marks  of  punctuation  : — 

1.  There  are  no  accidents  in  the  providence  of  God. 

*  For  puuctuatioQ,  see  page  42. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


2.  Why  does  the  very  murderer,  his  victim  sleeping  before  him, 
and  his  glaring  eye  taking  the  measure  of  the  blow,  strike  wide  (d 
the  mortal  part  ? 

3.  Suffer  not  yourselves  to  be  betrayed  with  a  kiss. 
(The  subject  is  you  understood.) 

4.  How  wonderful  is  the  advent  of  spring  1 
6.  Oh  1  a  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green  ! 

6.  Six  days  shalt  thou  labor  and  do  all  thy  work. 

7.  Alexander  the  Great  died  at  Babylon  in  the  thirty-third  year  of 
his  age. 

8c  How  sickness  enlarges  the  dimensions  of  a  man's  self  to  him- 
self 1 

9.  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the  Lord  thy  God  in  vain. 

10.  Lend  me  your  ears. 

11.  What  brilliant  rings  the  planet  Saturn  has  ! 

12.  What  power  shall  blanch  the  sullied  snow  of  character  ? 
iSc  The  laws  of  nature  are  the  thoughts  of  God. 

14,  How  beautiful  was  the  snow,  falling  all  day  long,  all  night  long, 
on  the  roofs  of  the  living,  on  the  graves  of  the  dead  ! 

15.  Who,  in  the  darkest  days  of  our  Revolution,  carried  your  flag 
into  the  very  chops  of  the  British  Channel,  bearded  the  lion  in  his  den, 
and  woke  the  echoes  of  old  Albion's  hills  by  the  thunders  of  his  cannon 
and  the  shouts  of  his  triumph  ? 


LESSON    47. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    REVIEW.. 
Analysis. 
i.  Poetry  is  only  the  eloquence  and  enthusiasm  of  religioa. —  Words' 

2.  Refusing  to  bare  his  head  to  any  earthly  potentate,  Richelieu 


Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Review.  S^ 


ivould  permit  no  eminent  author  to  stand  bareheaded  in  his  presence. 
—Stephen. 

3.  The  Queen  of  England  is  simply  a  piece  of  historic  heraldry  ;  a 
flag,  floating  grandly  over  a  Liberal  ministry  yesterday,  over  a  Tory 
min'stry  to-day. — Comvay. 

4.  The  vulgar  intellectual  palate  hankers  after  the  titillation  of 
foaming  phrase. — Lowell. 

5.  Two  mighty  vortices,  Pericles  and  Alexander  the  Great,  drew 
into  strong  eddies  about  themselves  all  the  glory  and  the  pomp  of 
Greek  literature,  Greek  eloquence,  Greek  wisdom,  Greek  art. — De 
Quincey, 

6.  Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense,  lie  in  three  words 
— health,  peace,  and  competence. — Pope. 

7.*  Extreme  admiration  puts  out  the  critic's  eye. — Tyler. 

8.  The  setting  of  a  great  hope  is  like  the  setting  of  the  sun. — 
LongfeUow. 

9.  Things  mean,  the  Thistle,  the  Leek,  the  Broom  of  the  Plan- 
itrEgenets,  become  noble  by  association. — F.  W.  Robertson. 

10.  Prayer  is  the  key  of  the  morning  and  the  bolt  of  the  night.. — 
Beecher, 

11. f  In  that  calm  Syrian  afternoon,  memory,  a  pensive  Ruth,  went 
gleaning  the  silent  fields  of  childhood,  and  found  the  scattered  grain 
still  golden,  and  the  morning  sunlight  fresh  and  fair. — Curtis. 

*  Weighty  thoughts  tersely  expressed,  like  (7),  (8),  and  (10)  in  this  Lesson,  are  called 
£pig:rains.    What  quality  do  you  think  they  impart  to  one's  style  ? 

t  In  Buth  of  this  sentence,  we  have  a  type  of  the  metaphor  called  Personification 
—a  figure  in  which  things  are  raised  above  their  proper  plane,  taken  up  toward  or  to 
that  of  persons.  Things  take  on  dignity  and  importance  as  they  rise  in  the  scale  of 
being. 

Note,  moreover,  that  in  this  instance  of  the  figure  we  have  an  Allusion.  All  the 
Interest  that  the  Ruth  of  the  Bible  awakens  in  us  this  allusion  gathers  about  so 
coaunon  a  thing  as  memory. 


%8  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    48. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    REVIEW. 
Analysis. 

I.  By  means  of  steam  man  realizes  the  fable  of  JEolus's  bag,  ani 
carries  the  two-and-thirty  winds  in  the  boiler  of  his  boat. — EmersoUo 

*ii.  The  Angel  of  Life  winds  our  brains  up  once  for  all,  then  closes 
the  case,  and  gives  the  key  into  the  hands  of  the  Angel  of  Resurrec- 
tion.— Holmes. 

3.  I  called  the  New  World  into  existence  to  redress  the  balance 
of  the  Old. — Canning. 

4.  The  prominent  nose  of  the  New  Englander  is  evidence  of  the 
constant  linguistic  exercise  of  that  organ. —  Warner. 

5.  Every  Latin  word  has  its  function  as  noun  or  verb  or  adverb 
ticketed  upon  it. — Earle. 

6.  The  Alps,  piled  in  cold  and  still  sublimity,  are  an  image  of 
despotism. — Phillips. 

.7.  I  want  my  husband  to  be  submissive  without  looking  so. — Oail 
Hamilton. 

8.  I  love  to  lose  myself  in  other  men's  minds. — Lamb. 

9.  Cheerfulness  banishes  all  anxious  care  and  discontent,  soothes 
and  composes  the  passions,  and  keeps  the  soul  in  a  perpetual  calm.— 
Addison. 

10.  To  discover  the  true  nature  of  comets  has  hitherto  proved 
beyond  the  power  of  science. 

Explanation.— ^eyowi?  the  power  of  science  =  imposarible^  and  is 
therefore  an  attribute  complement.  The  preposition  beyond  showTS 
the  relation,  in  sense,  of  power  to  the  subject  phrase. 

II.  Authors  must  not,  like  Chinese  soldiers,  expect  to  win  victories 
by  turning  somersets  in  the  air. — Longfellow, 


Arrangement— Usual  Order,  89 

LESSON    49, 

REVIEW    OF    PUNCTUATION, 

Direotion. — Oive  the  reasons,  so  far  as  you  have  been  taught,  for 
the  mcurhs  of  punctuation  used  in  Lessons  44,  46,  47,  and  48. 


LESSON    50. 

REVIEW. 

To  THE  Teacher.— See  suggestions,  Lesson  16. 

Direction. — Review  from  Lesson  37  to  Lesson  46,  inclusive. 

Give,  in  some  such  way  as  we  have  outlined  in  preceding  Review 
Lessons,  the  substance  of  the  **  Introductory  Hints  ;  "  repeat  and 
illustrate  definitions  and  rules  ;  illustrate  the  different  uses  of  the 
participle  and  the  infinitive,  and  illustrate  the  Caution  regarding  th© 
use  of  the  participle  ;  illustrate  the  different  ways  in  which  words 
and  phrases  may  be  grammatically  independent,  and  the  punctuatioD 
of  these  independent  elements. 


LESSON    51. 

ARRANGEMENT-USUAL   ORDER. 

To  THE  Teacher.— If,  from  lack  of  time  or  from  the  necessity  of  conforming  to  a 
prescribed  course  of  stndy,  it  is  found  desirable  to  abridge  these  Lessons  on  Arrange- 
ment and  Contraction,  the  exercises  to  be  written  may  be  omitted,  and  the  pupil  may 
be  required  to  illustrate  the  positions  of  the  different  parts,  in  both  the  Usual  and 
the  Transposed  order,  and  then  to  read  the  examples  given,  making  the  required 
changes  orally. 

The  eight  following  Lessons  may  thus  be  reduced  to  two  or  three. 

Let  ns  recall  the  Usual  Order  of  words  and  phrases  in 
a  simple  declarative  sentence. 


90  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  verb  follows  the  subject,  and  the  object  complement 
follows  the  verb. 
example. — Drake  circumnavigated  the  globe. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  three  sentences  each  with  an 
object  complement. 

An  adjective  or  a  possessive  modifier  precedes  its  noun, 
and  an  explanatory  modifier  fallows  it. 

Examples. — Man's  life  is  a  brief  span.  Moses,  the  lawgiver,  came 
down  from  the  Mount. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  four  sentences,  two  with 
possessive  modifiers  and  two  with  explanatory,  each  sentence  containing 
an  adjective. 

The  attribute  complement,  whether  noun  or  adjective, 
follows  the  verb,  the  objective  complement  follows  the 
object  complement,  and  the  indirect  object  precedes  the 
direct. 

Examples. — Egypt  is  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  Eastern  life  Js  dreamy. 
They  made  Bonaparte  consul.     They  offered  Ccesar  a  crown. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  four  sentences  H'lustrating 
(he  positions  of  the  noun  and  of  the  adjective  when  they  perform  these 
offices. 

If  adjectives  are  of  unequal  rank,  the  one  most  closely 
modifying  the  noun  stands  nearest  to  it ;  if  of  the  same 
rank,  they  stand  in  the  order  of  their  length — the  shortest 
first. 

Examples. — Two  honest  young  men  enlisted.  Cassiiti;  has  a  lean 
and  hungry  look.     A  rock,  huge  and  precipitous,  stood  in  our  path. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  three  sentences  illustrating 
the  relative  position  of  adjectives  before  and  after  the  noun. 

An  adverb  precedes  the  adjective,  the  adverb,  or  the 
phrase  which  it  modifies  ;   precedes  or  follows  (more  fre- 


Arrangement— Transposed  Order.  91 


quently  follows)  the  simple  veib  or  the  verb  with  its  com- 
plement ;  and  follows  one  or  more  words  of  the  verb  if  the 
verb  is  compound. 

Examples. — The  light  far  in  the  distance  is  so  very  bright.  I  soorb 
found  him.     I  hurt  Mm  badly.     He  had  often  been  there. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  sentences  illustrating  these 
several  positions  of  the  adverb. 

Phrases  follow  the  words  they  modify  ;  if  a  word  has  two 
or  more  phrases,  those  most  closely  modifying  it  stand 
nearest  to  it. 

Examples. — Facts  once  established  are  facts  forever.  He  sailed  for 
Liverpool  on  Ifonday. 

Direction. — Observing  this  order,  write  sentences  illustrating  the 
positions  of  participle  and  prepositional  phrases. 


LESSON    52. 

ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED    ORDER. 

Introductory  Hints. — The  usual  order  of  words,  spoken  of  in 
the  preceding  Lesson,  is  not  the  only  order  admissible  in  an  Eng- 
lish sentence  ;  on  the  contrary,  great  freedom  in  the  placing  of  words 
and  phrases  is  sometimes  allowable.  Let  the  relation  of  the  words  be 
kept  obvious  and,  consequently,  the  thought  clear,  and  in  poetry,  iii 
impassioned  oratory,  in  excited  speech  of  any  kind,  one  may  devia  e 
widely  from  this  order. 

A  writer's  meaning  is  never  distributed  evenly  among  his  word:  • 
more  of  it  lies  in  some  words  than  in  others.  Under  the  influence 
of  strong  feeling,  one  may  move  words  out  of  their  accustomed  place, 
and,  by  thus  attracting  attention  to  tiicm,  give  them  additional 
importance  to  the  reader  or  hearer. 

When  any  word  or  phrase  in  the  predicate  stands  out  of  its  usual 
place,  appearing  either  at  the  front  of  the  sentence  or  at  the  end,  we 
have  what  we  may  call  the  Transposed  Order.  I  dare  not  venture 
to  go  down  into  the  cabin —  Venture  to  go  down  into  the  cabin  I  dare 


92 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


not.  You  shall  die — Die  you  shall.  Their  names  will  forever  live 
on  the  lips  of  the  people — Their  names  will,  on  the  lips  of  the  people, 
forever  live. 

When  the  word  or  phrase  moved  to  the  front  carries  the  verb,  or 
the  principal  word  of  it,  before  the  subject,  we  have  the  extreme 
example  of  the  transposed  order  ;  as,  A  yeoman  had  he.  Strange 
is  the  magic  of  a  turban.  The  whole  of  a  verb  is  not  placed  at  the 
beginning  of  a  declarative  sentence  except  in  poetry  ;  as,  Mashed  all 
their  sabers  bare. 

To  TWB  Teacher. — Where,  in  our  directions  in  these  Lessons  on  Arrangement  and 
Contraction,  we  say  change,  transpose,  or  restore,  the  pupils  need  not  write  the  sen- 
tences. Tiiey  should  study  them  and  be  able  to  read  them.  Require  them  to  show 
what  the  sentence  has  lost  or  gained  in  the  change. 

Direction. —Change  these  sentences  from  the  usual  to  the  trans- 
posed order  by  moving  words  or  phrases  to  the  front,  and  explain 
the  effect: — 


1.  He  could  not  avoid  it. 

2.  They  were  pretty  lads. 

3.  The  great  Queen  died  in  the 

year  1603. 

4.  He  would  not  escape. 

5.  I  must  go. 

6.  She  seemed  young  and  sad. 

7.  He  cried,  **  My  son,  my  son  I " 


8.  He  ended  his  tale  here. 

9.  The  moon  shone  bright. 

10.  A  frozen  continent  lies  beyond 

the  sea. 

11.  He  was  a  contentious  man. 

12.  It  was  quoted  so. 

13.  Monmouth    had    never    been 

accused  of  cowardice. 


Direction. — Change  these  sentences  from  the  transposed  order  to  the 


usual,  and  explain  the  effect : — 

1.  Him      the     Almighty    Power 

hurled  headlong. 

2.  Volatile  he  was. 

S.  Victories,  indeed,  they  were. 

4.  Of  noble  race  the  lady  came. 

5.  Slowly  and  sadly  we  laid  him 

down, 

6.  Once  again  we'll  sleep  secure. 

7.  This  double    office    the   parti- 

ciple performs. 


8.  That  gale  I  well  remember. 

9.  Churlish  he  often  seemed. 

10.  One  strong  thing  I  find  here 

below.      ^ 

11.  Overhead    I    heard    a   mur= 

raur. 

12.  To  their  will  we  m«st  suc- 

cumb. 

13.  Him  they  hanged. 

14.  Freely  ye  have  received. 


Arrangement— Transposed  Order.  93 


Direction. —  Write  five  sentences,  each  with  one  of  the  following 
nouns  or  adjectives  as  a  complement ;  and  five,  each  with  one  of  the 
adverbs  or  phrases  as  predicate  modifier  ;  then  transpose  the  ten  with 
these  same  ivords  moved  to  the  front,  and  explain  the  effect : — 

Giant,  character,  happy,  him,  serene,  often,  in  the  market,  long  and 
deeply,  then,  under  foot. 

DirecticHi. — Transpose  these  sentences  hy  placing  the  italicized 
words  last,  and  note  the  effect: — 

1.  The  clouds  lowering  upon  our  house  are  buried  in  the  deep  bosom 
of  the  ocean. 

2.  JEneas  did  bear  from  the  flames  of  Troy  upon  his  shoulder  the 
old  Anchises. 

3.  Such  a  heart  beats  in  the  breast  of  my  people. 

4.  The  great  fire  roared  up  the  deep  and  wide  chimney. 

Direction. — Change  these  to  the  usual  order  : — 

1.  No  woman  was  ever  in  this  wild  humor  wooed  and  won. 

2.  Let  a  shroud,  stripped  from  some  privileged  corpse,  be,  for  its 
proper  price,  displayed. 

3.  An  old  clock,  early  one  summer's  morning,  before  the  stirring 
of  the  family,  suddenly  stopped. 

4.  Treasures  of  gold  and  of  silver  are,  in  the  deep  bosom  of  the 
earth,  concealed. 

5.  Ease  and  grace  in  writing  are,  of  all  the  acquisitions  made  in 
school,  the  most  difficult  and  valuable. 

Direction. — Write  three  sentences,  each  with  the  following  noun 
or  adjective  or  phrase  in  its  usual  place  in  the  predicate,  and  then 
transpose,  placing  these  words  wherever  they  can  properly  go : — 

Mountains,  glad,  by  and  by. 


LESSON    53. 

ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED  ORDER. 

Direction. — Restore  these  sentences  to  their  usual  order  by  moving^ 
the  object  complement  and  the  verb  to  their  customary  places,  and  tell 
what  is  lost  by  the  change  : — 


94  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


1.  Thorns  and  thistles  shall  the  earth  bring  forth. 

2.  "Exactly  so,"  replied  the  pendulum. 

3.  Me  restored  he  to  mine  office. 

4.  A  changed  France  have  vfe. 

5.  These  evils  hath  sin  wrought. 

Direction. — Transpose-  these  sentences  hy  moving  the  object  com^ 
plement  and  the  verb,  and  tell  what  is  gained  by  the  change  :— 

1.  The  dial-plate  exclaimed,  "Lazy  wire!" 

2.  The  maiden  has  such  charms. 

3.  The  English  character  has  faults  and  plenty  of  them. 

4.  I  will  make  one  effort  more  to  save  you. 

5.  The  king  does  possess  great  power. 

6.  You  have  learned  much  in  this  short  journey. 

Direction. —  Write  six  transposed  sentences  with  these  nouns  as 
object  complements,  and  then  restore  them  to  their  usual  order : — 
Pause,  cry,  peace,  horse,  words,  gift. 

Direction. — Restore  these  seritences  to  their  usual  order  by  moving 
the  attribute  complement  and  the  verb  to  their  usual  places,  and  tell 
what  is  lost  by  the  change : — 

1.  A  dainty  plant  is  the  ivy  green. 

2.  Feet  was  I  to  the  lame.  ^ 

3.  A  mighty  man  is  he. 

4.  As  a  mark  of  respect  was  the  present  given. 

5.  A  giant  towered  he  among  men. 

Direction. — Transpose  these  sentences  by  moving  the  attribute  com' 
element  and  the  verb,  and  tell  what  is  gained  by  the  change : — 

1.  We  are  merry  brides. 

2.  "Washington  is  styled  the  "Father  of  his  Country." 

3.  He  was  a  stark  mosstrooping  Scot. 

4.  The  man  seemed  an  incarnate  demon. 

5.  Henry  VIII.  had  become  a  despot. 

Direction. —  Using  these  nouns  as  attribute  complements,  write  three 
sentences  in  the  usual  order,  and  then  transpose  them  : — 

Rock,  desert,  fortress. 

Direction. — Restore  these  sentences  to  their  usual  order  by  moving 
the  adjective  complement  and  the  verb  to  their  customary  places  : — 


Arrangement— Transposed  Order. 


1.  Happy  are  we  to-night,  boys.      7.  Blood-red  became  the  sun. 

2.  Good  and  upright  is  the  Lord.    8.  Doubtful  seemed  the  battle, 

3.  Hotter  grew  the  air.  9.  Wise  are  all  his  ways. 

4.  Pale  looks  your  Grace.  10.  Wide  open  stood  the  doors, 

5.  Dark  rolled  the  waves.  11.  Weary  had  he  grown. 

6.  Louder  waxed  the  applause.      12.  Faithful  proved  he  to  the  last., 
Direction. — Transpose  these  sentences  hy  moving  the  adjective  com" 

plement  and  the  verb  : — 

1.  My  regrets  were  bitter  and  unavailing. 

2.  The  anger  of  the  righteous  is  weighty. 

3.  The  air  seemed  deep  and  dark. 

4.  She  had  grown  tall  and  queenly. 

5.  The  peacemakers  are  blessed. 

6.  I  came  into  the  world  helpless. 

7.  The  untrodden  snow  lay  bloodless. 

8.  The  fall  of  that  house  was  great. 

9.  The  uproar  became  intolerable. 
10.  The  secretary  stood  alone. 

Direction. — Write  five  transposed  sentences^  each  loith  one  of  these 
adjectives  as  attribute  complement,  and  then  restore  the  sentences  to  ths 
usual  order : — 

Tempestuous,  huge,  glorious,  lively,  fierce. 


LESSON     54. 

ARRANGEMENT-TRANSPOSED    ORDER. 

Direction. — Restore  these  sentences  to  the  usual  order  by  moving  the 
adverb  and  the  verb  to  their  customary  places,  and  note  the  loss  f— 

1.  Then  burst  his  mighty  heart.        8.  Off  went  his  bonnet. 

2.  Here  stands  the  man.  9.  Well  have  ye  judged. 

3.  Crack  I  went  the  ropes.  10.  On  swept  the  lines. 

4.  Down  came  the  masts.  11.  There  dozed  the  donkeys, 

5.  So  died  the  great  Columbus  of    12.  Boom  I  boom  !  went  the  guns. 

the  skies.  13,  Thus  waned  the  afternoon, 

6.  Tir-tac  I  tictac  !  go  the  wheels     14.  There   thunders  the  cataract 

of  thought.  age  after  age. 

7.  Away  went  Gilpin. 


96  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. — Transpose  these  sentences  by  moving  the  adverb  and 
the  verb : — 

Ic  I  "will  never  desert  Mr.  Micaw-      6.  A    sincere    word    was    never 
ber.  utterly  lost. 

2.  The  great  event  occurred  soon      7.  It  stands  written  so. 

after.  8.  Venus  was  yet  the   morning 

3.  The  boy  stood  there  with  dizzy  star. 

brain.  9.  You  must  speak  thus. 

4  The      Spaniard's      shot     went  10.  Lady  Impudence  goes  up  to 

whing  !  whing  !  the  maid. 

5.  Catiline  shall  no  longer    plot  11.  Thy    proud    waves    shall    be 

her  ruin.  stayed  here. 

Direction, —  Write  ten  sentences  in  the  transposed  order,  using  these 
adverbs : — 

Still,  here,  now,  so,  seldom,  there,  out,  yet,  thus,  never. 

Direction, — Restore  these  sentences  to  the  usual  order  by  moving  the 
phrase  a/nd  the  verb  to  their  customary  places,  and  note  the  loss : — 

1.  Behind  her  rode  Lalla  Rookh.       7.  In  purple  was  she  robed. 

2o  Seven  years  after  the  Restora-  8,  Near  the   surface  are    found 

tion  appeared  Paradise  Lost.  the  implements  of  bronze. 

3o  Into  the  valley  of  death  rode  9.  Through    the   narrow  bazaar 

the  six  hundred.  pressed  the  demure  donkeys. 

4c  To    such    straits    is    a    kaiser  10.  In  those  days  came  John  the 

driven.  Baptist. 

5.  Upon    such    a    grating   hinge  11,  On  the  17th  of  June,  1775,  was 

opened  the  door  of  his  daily  fought  the  battle  of  Bunker 

.       life.  Hill. 

6.  Between  tiiem  lay  a  mountain     12.  Three  times  were  the  Romans 

ridge.  driven  back. 

Direction, — Transpose  these  sentences  by  moving  the  phrase  and 
the  verb: — 

lo  The  disciples  came  at  the  same    3.  An   ancient    and    stately    hall 
time.  stood  near  the  village. 

2.  The  dreamy  murmur  of  insects    4.  His   trusty  sword    lay  by  his 

was  heard  over  our  heads.  side. 


Arrangement— Interrogative  Sentences.  97 


5.  Pepin  eventually  succeeded  to      8.  The  bridle  is    red  with    the 

Ciiarles  Martel.  sign  of  despair. 

6.  The    house    stands    somewhat      9.  I  have  served  in  twenty  cam- 

back  from  the  street.  paigns. 

7.  Our  sphere  tarns  on  its  axis,       10.  Touch  proper  lies  in  the  fin- 

ger-tips and  in  the  lips. 

Direction. —  fVrite  ten  sentences  in  the  usual  order,  using  these 
prepositions  to  introduce  phrases,  and  then  transpose  the  sentences^  and 
compare  the  two  orders : — 

Beyond,  upon,  toward,  of,  by,  into,  between,  in,  at,  to. 

Direction. —  Write  six  sentences  in  the  transposed  order^  beginning 
them  with  these  words: — 

There  (independent),  nor,  neither. 


LESSON     55. 

ARRANGEMENT-INTERROGATIVE    SENTENCES. 

If  the  interrogative  word  is  subject  or  a  modifier  of  it> 
the  order  is  usual. 
Examples. —  Who  came  last  evening  ?    What  star  shines  brightest  ? 

Direction. —  Write  five  interrogative  sentences,  using  the  first  word 
below  as  a  subject ;  the  second  as  a  subject  and  then  as  a  modifier  of 
the  subject ;  the  third  as  a  subject  and  then  as  a  modifier  of  the  sub- 
ject :— 

Who,  which,  what. 

If  the  interrogative  word  is  object  complement  or  attri- 
bute complement  or  a  modifier  of  either,  the  order  is 
transposed. 

Examples. —  Whom  did  you  see  ?  What  are  personal  conse- 
quences ?     Which  course  will  you  choose  ? 

Direction. —  Write  an  interrogative  sentence  with  the  first  word 
below  as  object  complement,  and  another  with  the  second  word  as  at- 
tribute complement.     Write  four  with   the  third  and  the  fov/rth  as 

7 


98  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


complements,  and  four  with  the  third  and  the  fourth  as  modifiers  of 
the  complemeiit : — 

Whom,  who,  which,  what. 

If  the  interrogative  word  is  an  adverb,  the  order  is 
transposed. 

Examples. —  Why  is  the  forum  crowded  ?  Where  are  the  flowers, 
the  fair  young  flowers  ? 

Direction. —  Write  five  interrogative  sentences,  using  these  ad- 
verbs : — 

How,  when,  where,  whither,  why. 

If  there  is  no  interrogative  word,  the  subject  stands 
after  the  verb  when  this  is  simple  ;  after  the  first  word 
of  it  when  it  is  compound. 

Examples. — Bave  you  your  lesson  ?    Has  the  gentleman  finished  ? 

Direction. —  Write  six  interrogative  sentences,  using  these  words : — 

Is,  has,  can  learn,  might  have  gone,  could  have  been  found,  must 
see. 

Direction. — Change  the  sentences  you  have  written  in  this  Lesson 
into  declarative  sentences. 


LESSON    56. 

ARRANGEMENT-IMPERATIVE    AND    EXCLAMATORY 
SENTENCES. 

The  subject  is  usually  omitted  in  the  imperative  sen- 
tence ;  but,  when  it  is  expressed,  the  sentence  is  in  the 
transposed  order. 

Examples. — Praise  ye  the  Lord.  Give  {thou)  me  three  grains  of 
corn. 

Direction. —  Using  these  verbs,  write  ten  sentences,  in  five  of  which 
the  subject  shall  be  omitted ;  and  in  five,  expressed : — 

Remember,  listen,  lend,  love,  live,  choose,  use,  obey,  strive,  devote. 


Contraction  of  Sentences.  99 


Although  any  sentence  may  without  change  of  order 
become  exclamatory  (Lesson  46),  yet  exclamatory  sen- 
tences ordinarily  begin  with  how  or  what,  and  are  usu- 
ally in  the  transposed  order. 

Examples.— ^ow;  quietly  the  child  sleeps  !  How  exceUent  is  thy 
loving-kindness  !     WTiat  visions  have  I  seen  !     What  a  life  his  was  I 

Direction. —  W7'ite  six  exclamatory  sentences  with  the  word  how 
modifying  (1)  an  adjective,  (2)  a  verb,  and  (3)  a?i  adverb — in  three  sen- 
tences let  the  verb  follow,  and  in  three  precede,  the  subject.  Write 
four  sentences  ivith  the  word  what  modifying  (1)  an  object  comple- 
ment and  (3)  an  attribute  complement — in  two  sentences  let  the  verb 
follow,  and  in  two  .precede^  the  subject. 


LESSON    57. 

CONTRACTION  OF  SENTENCES. 

Direction. — Contract  these  sentences  by  omitting  the  repeated  mod- 
ifiers and  prepositions,  and  all  the  conjunctions  except  the  last: — 

1.  Webster  was  a  great  lawyer,  a  great  statesman,  a  great  debater, 
and  a  great  writer. 

2.  By  their  valor,  by  their  policy,  and  by  their  matrimonial  alli- 
ances, they  became  powerful. 

3.  Samuel  Adams's  habits  were  simple  and  frugal  and  unostenta- 
tious. 

4.  Flowers  are  so  fragile,  so  delicate,  and  so  ornamental ! 

5.  They  are  truly  prosperous  and  truly  happy. 

6.  The  means   used   were   persuasions   and   petitions   and    remon- 
strances and  resolutions  and  defiance. 

7.  Carthage   was  the    mistress   of    oceans,    of    kingdoms,    and    of 
nations. 

Direction. — Expand  these  by  repeating  the  adjective,  the  adverb,  the 
preposition,  and  the  conjunction  : — 

1.  He  was  a  good  son,  father,  brother,  friend. 

2.  The  tourist  traveled  in  Spain,  Greece,  Egypt,  and  Palestine. 


160 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


3.  Bayard  was  very  brave,  truthful,  and  chivalrous. 

4,  Honor,  revenge,  shame,  and  contempt  inflamed  his  heart. 
Direction. —  Write  six  sentences,  each  with  one  of  these  words  used 

four  times;  and  then  contract  them  as  above,  and  note  the  effect  of  the 
repetition  and  of  the  omission : — 

Poor,  how,  with,  through,  or,  and. 

Direction. — Expand  these  sentences  by  supplying  subjects : — 

1.  Give    us    this    day    our    daily      5.   Where    hast    been    these    six 

bread.  months  ? 

2.  Why  dost  stare  so  ?  6.  Bless  me  ! 
Thank  you,  sir.  7.  Save  us. 
Hear  me  for  my  cause. 

Direction. — Expand  these  by  supplying  the  verb  or  some  part  of 


3. 
4. 

it:— 

1.  Nobody  there. 

2.  Death  to  the  tyrant. 

3.  All  aboard  ! 

4.  All  hands  to  the  pumps  I 

5.  What  to  me  fame  ? 


6.  Short,  indeed,  his  career. 

7.  When  Adam  thus  to  Eve, 

8.  I  must  after  him, 

9.  Thou  shalt  back  to  France. 
10.  Whose  footsteps  these  ? 


Direction. — Expand  these  by  supplying  both  subject  and  verb,  and 
note  the  loss  in  vivacity  : — 


1.  Upon  them  with  the  lance. 

2.  At  your  service,  sir. 

3.  Why  so  unkind  ? 

4.  Forward,  the  light  brigade  ! 

5.  Half-past  nine. 

6.  Off  with  you. 

7.  My  kingdom  for  a  horse  ! 

8.  Hence,  you  idle  creatures  ! 

9.  Coffee  for  two. 

Direction. — Contract  these  by  omitting  the  subject  or  the  verb : — 


10.  Shine,  sir  ? 

11.  Back  to  thy  punishment,  fal^*^ 

fugitive. 

12.  On  with  the  dance. 

13.  Strange,  strange  ! 

14.  Once  more  unto  the  breach. 

15.  Away,  away  ! 

16.  Impossible  ! 


1.  Art  thou  gone  ? 

2.  Will  you  take  your  chance  ? 

3.  His  career  was  ably  run. 

4.  Are  you  a  captain  ? 

5.  May  long  lif-e  be  to  the  republic. 


6.  How  great  is  the  mystery  ! 

7.  Canst  thou  wonder  ? 

8.  May  a  prosperous  voyage  be 

to  you. 

9.  Are  you  here  ? 


Review. 


^v 


Direction. — Contract  these  hy  omitting  both  subject  and  verb,  and 
note  the  gai?i  in  force  and  animation : — 

1.  I  offer  a  world  for  sale.  6.  Bring  ye  lights  there. 

2.  Now,  then,  go  you-  to  break-      7.  It  is  true,  sir. 

fast.  8.  We   will   drink   a   tealth   to 

3.  Sit    you    down,    soothless    in-  Preciosa. 

suiter.  9.  I    offer    a    pennf    for    your 

4.  I  want  a  word  with  you,  wife.  thoughts. 

5.  Those  are  my  sentiments,  mad-    10.  Whither    are    you    going    so 

am.  early  ? 

Direction. — Construct  ten  full  sentences,  using  *»  Mch,  one  of 
these  adverbs  or  phrases  or  nouns,  and  then  contract  the  sentences  by 
omitting  both  subject  and  verb : — 

Why,  heLce,  to  arms,  silence,  out,  to  your  tents,  peachein,  room,  for 
the  guns,  water. 


LESSON     58. 

REVIEW. 

To  THE  Traoher.— See  suggestions,  Lesson  16. 

Direction- — Review  from  Lesson  51  to  Lesson  57,  mdusive. 

Illustrate  the  different  positions— Usual  and  Transposed — that  the 
words  and  phrases  of  a  declarative  sentence  may  take  ;  illustrate  the 
different  positions  of  the  parts  of  an  interrogative,  of  an  imperative, 
and  of  an  exclamatory  sentence  ;  illustrate  the  different  ways  of  oono 
tracting  sentences. 


Exercises  on  the  Composition  of  the  Sentence  and  the 
Paragraph. 

(See  pages  162-165.) 

To  THE  Teacher.— See  notes  to  the  teacher,  pages  30,  150. 


,^  The, Sentence  ar^d  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    59. 

COMPLEX    SENTENCE-ADJECTIVE    CLAUSE. 

Introductory  Hints. — The  sentences  given  for  analysis  in  the  pre- 
ceding Lessons  contain  each  but  one  subject  and  one  predicate.  They 
are  called  Simple  Sentences. 

A  discreet  youth  makes  friends.  In  Lesson  17  you  learned  that  you 
could  expand  the  adjective  discreet  into  a  phrase,  and  say,  A  youth 
of  discretion  makes  friends.  You  are  now  to  learn  that  you  can 
expand  it  into  an  expression  that  asserts,  and  say,  A  youth  that  is 
discreet  makes  friends.  This  part  of  tlie  sentence  and  the  other  part, 
A  youth  makes  friends,  containing  each  a  subject  and  a  predicate,  we 
call  Clauses. 

The  adjective  clause  that  is  discreet,  performing  the  office  of  a 
single  word,  we  call  a  Dependent  Clause  ;  A  youth  makes  friends, 
not  performing  such  office,  we  call  an  Independent  Clause. 

The  whole  sentence,  composed  of  an  independent  and  a  dependent 
clause,  we  call  a  Complex  Sentence. 

A  dependent  clause  that  does  the  work  of  an  adjective  is  called  an 
Adjective  Clause. 


Analysis. 
1.  They  that  touch  pitch  will  be  defiled. 

TTiet/    ,     will  be  defiled  Explanation.— The   relative  importanct 
'                                    of  the  two  clauses  is  shown  by  their  position, 
by  their  connection,  and  by  the  difference  in 
the  shadini?  of  the  lines.     The  pronoun  that 
— H — '  ^  ■' —             is  written  on  the  subject  line  of  the  depend- 
ent clause.     That  performs  the  office  of  a  conjunction  also.     This  office  is 
shown  by  the  dotted  line.    As  modifiers  are  joined  by  slanting  lines  to  the 
words  they  modify,  you  learn  from  this  diagram  that  thai  touch  pitch  is  a 
modifier  of  ih^. 


Complex  Sentence— Adjective  Clause.  103 


Oral  Analysis. — This  is  a  complex  sentence  because  it  consists  of 
an  independent  clause  and  a  dependent  clause.  They  will  he  defiled 
is  the  independent  clause,  and  that  touch  pitch  is  the  dependent. 
That  touch  pitch  is  a  modifier  of  they  because  it  limits  the  meaning 
of  they ;  the  dependent  clause  is  connected  by  its  subject  that  to  they. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Illustrate  the  connecting  force  of  wfio,  which,  and  that  by 
substituting  for  them  the  words  for  which  they  stand,  and  noting  the  loss  of 
connection. 

2.  The  lever  which  moves  the  world  of  mind  is  the  printing-press. 

3.  Wine  makes  the  face  of  him  who  drinks  it  to  excess  blush  for 
his  habits. 

Explanation. — The  adjective  clause  does  not  always  modify  the 
subject. 

4.  Photography  is  the  art  which  enables  commonplace  mediocrity 
to  look  like  genius. 

5.  In  1685  Louis  XIV,  signed  the  ordinance  that  revoked  the  Edict 
of  Nantes. 

6.  The  thirteen  colonies  were  welded  together  by  the  measures 
which  Samuel  Adams  framed. 

E]xplanation. — The  pronoun  connecting  an  adjective  clause  is  not 
always  a  subject. 

7.  The  guilt  of  the  slave-trade,*  which  sprang  out  of  the  traffic  with 
Guinea,  rests  with  John  Hawkins. 

8.  I  found  the   place  to  which  you 
referred. 

9.  The  spirit  in  which  we  act  is  the 
highest  matter 

10.  It  was  the  same  book  that  I  re- 
ferred to. 

•  See  Lesson  61,  foot-note. 


104  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Explanation. — The  phrase  to  that  modifies  referred.  That  con= 
nects  the  adjective  clause.  When  the  pronoun  that  connects  an 
adjective  clause,  the  preposition  never  precedes.  The  diagram  is 
similar  to  that  of  (8). 

11.  She  that  I  spoke  to  was  blind. 

12.  Grouchy  did  not  arrive  at  the  time  that  Napoleon  most  needed 
him. 

Explanation. — A  preposition  is  wanting.  That  =  in  which.  (Cau 
you  find  a  word  that  would  here  sound  better  than  that  ?) 

13.  Attention  is  the  stuff  that  memory  is  made  of. 

14.  It  is  to  you  that  I  speak. 

Explanation. — Here  the  preposition,  which  usually  would  stand 
last  in  the  sentence,  is  found  before  the  complement  of  the  independ- 
ent clause.  In  analysis  restore  the  preposition  to  its  usual  place— It 
is  you  that  I  speak  to.     That  I  speak  to  modifies  the  subject. 

15.  It  was  from  me  that  he  received  the  information. 

{Me  must  be  changed  to  I  when  from  is  restored  to  its  usual 

position.) 

rrmmtains  16.  Islands  are  the  tops  of  mountains  whose  base 

\     ,  .„     is  in  the  bed  of  the  ocean. 

N^    base  .  IS 

\.^-^  Explanation. — The  connecting  pronoun  is  here 

a  possessive  modifier  of  base. 
17.  Unhappy  is  the  man  whose  mother  does  not  make  all  mothers 
interesting. 

LESSON     60- 

ADJECTIVE    CLAUSES-CONTINUEDc 
Analysis. 
1.  Trillions  of  waves  of  ether  enter  the  eye  and  hit  the  retina  in 
y^e  time  you  take  to  breathe. 


Adjective  Clauses— Continued.  105 


Explanation. — The  connecting  pronoun  that*  is  omitted. 

2.  The  smith  takes  his  name  from  his  smoothing  the  metals  he 
works  on. 

3.  Socrates  was  one  of  the  greatest  sages  the  world  ever  saw. 

4.  Whom  the  Lord  loveth  he  chasteneth. 

Explanation. — The  adjective  clause  modifies  the  omitted  ante- 
cedent of  whom.     Supply  him. 

6.  He  did  what  was  right. 

— ^^    j    ^'^^    I  ■   ^ Explanation.— The  adjective 

\  clause    modifies    the    omitted    word 

thing^  or  some  word  whose  meaning  is 
wTiat  \  ■  was  <^  right      general  or  indefinite. t 

6.  What  is  false  in  this  world  below  betrays  itself  in  a  love  of 
show. 

7.  The  swan  achieved  what  the  goose  conceived, 

8.  What  men  he  had  were  true. 

The  relative  pronoun  what  here  precedes  its  noun  like  an  adjective. 
Analyze  as  if  arranged  thus  :  The  men  what  (=  that  or  whom)  he  had 
were  true. 

9.  Whoever  does  a  good  deed  is  instantly  ennobled. 

♦  When  wfurm,  which.,  and  that  would,  if  used,  be  object  complements,  they  are 
often  omitted.    Macaulay  is  the  only  writer  we  have  found  who  seldom  or  never  omits 


t  Many  grammarians  prefer  to  treat  what  was  right  as  a  noun  clause  (see  Lesson  71), 
the  object  of  did.  They  would  treat  in  the  same  way  clauses  introduced  by  whoever, 
whenever,  whichever. 

"  What  was  originally  an  interrogative  and  introduced  substantive  clauses.  Its  use 
as  a  compound  relative  is  an  extension  of  its  use  as  an  indirect  interrogative  ;  it  is  con- 
fined to  clauses  which  may  be  parsed  as  substantives,  and  before  which  no  antecedent 
is  needed,  or  permitted  to  be  expressed.  Its  possessive  whose  has,  however,  attained 
the  full  construction  of  a  relative."— Pro/'.  F.  A.  March. 


106  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Explanation. — The  adjective  clause  modifies  the  omitted  subject 
(man  or  he)  of  the  independent  clause. 

10.  I  told  him  to  bring  whichever  was  the  lightest. 

11.  Whatever  crushes  individuality  is  despotism. 

12.  A  depot  is  a  place  where  stores  are  deposited. 

depot   .    is    s,  place  Explanation. — The  line  repre- 

~~"w  \t     \  senting  where  is  made  up  of  two 

''%  parts.    The  upper  part  represents 

V  wfiere  as  a  conjunction  connecting 

stores  yre  deposited  ^^^  adjective  clause  to  place,  and 
the  lower  part  represents  it  as  an  adverb  modifying  are  deposited.  As  where 
performs  these  two  offices,  it  may  be  called  a  conjunctive  adverb.  By  chang- 
ing wTiere  to  the  equivalent  phrase  in  which,  and  using  a  diagram  similar  to 
(8),  Lesson  59,  the  double  nature  of  the  conjunctive  adverb  will  be  seen. 

13.  He  raised  the  maid  from  where  she  knelt. 
(Supply  the  place  before  where.) 

14.  Youth  is  the  time  when  the  seeds  of  character  are  sown. 

15.  Shylock  would  give  the  duke  no  reason  why  he  followed  a  losing 
suit  against  Antonio. 

16.  Mark  the  majestic  simplicity  of  those  laws  whereby  the  opera- 
tions of  the  universe  are  conducted. 


LESSON    61. 

COMPOSITION-ADJECTIVE    CLAUSE. 

COMMA— RULE.— The  Adjective  Clause,  when  not  re^ 
strictire,  is  set  off  by  the  comma. 

Explanation. — I  picked  the  apple  that  was  ripe.  I  picked  the 
apple,  which  was  ripe.  In  the  first  sentence  the  adjective  clause 
restricts  or  limits  apple,  telling  which  one  was  picked  ;  in  the  second 
the  adjective  clause  is  added  merely  to  describe  the  apple  picked, 


Composition— Adjective  Clause.  107 


the  sentence  being  nearly  equivalent  to,  I  picked  the  apple,  and  it  was 
ripe.     This  difference  in  meaning  is  shown  by  the  punctuation.* 

Caution. — The   adjective   clause   should    be    placed  as 
near  as  possible  to  the  word  it  modifies. 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors  of  position,  and  insert 
the  comma  when  needed : — 

1.  The  Knights  of  the  Round  Table  flourished  in  the  reign  of  King 
Arthur  who  vied  with  their  chief  in  chivalrous  exploits. 

2.  Solomon  was  the  son  of  David  who  built  the  Temple. 

3.  My  brother  caught  the  fish  on  a  small  hook  baited  with  a  worm 
which  we  had  for  breakfast. 

4.  I  have  no  right  to  decide  who  am  interested. 

Direction. — Construct  Jive  complex  sentences,  each  containing  an 
adjective  clause  equivalent  to  one  of  the  following  adjectives : — 
Ambitious,  respectful,  quick-witted,  talkative,  lovable. 

*  There  are  other  constructions  in  which  the  relative  is  more  nearly  equivalent  to 
and  Tie  or  and  it ;  as,  I  gave  the  letter  to  my  friend,  who  will  return  it  to  you. 

Those  who  prefer  to  let  their  classification  be  governed  by  the  logical  relation  rather 
than  by  the  grammatical  construction  call  such  a  sentence  compound,  making  the  rela- 
tive clause  independent,  or  co-ordinate  with  its  antecedent  clause. 

Such  claasiflcation  will  often  require  very  careful  discrimination  ;  as,  for  instance, 
between  the  preceding  sentence  and  the  following  :  I  gave  the  letter  to  my  friend,  who 
can  be  trusted. 

But  we  know  of  no  author  who,  in  every  case,  governs  his  classification  of  phrases  and 
clauses  strictly  by  their  logical  relations.    Let  us  examine  the  following  sentences  :— 
John,  who  did  not  know  the  law.,  is  innocent. 
John  is  innocent ;  he  did  not  know  the  law. 
John  is  innocent  because  he  did  not  know  the  law. 

No  grammarian,  we  think,  would  class  each  of  these  three  italicized  clauses  as  an 
adverb  clause  of  cause.  Do  they  differ  in  logical  force  ?  The  student  should  carefully 
note  all  those  constructions  in  which  the  grammatical  form  and  the  logical  force  differ. 
(See  pages  119, 121,  138, 139, 142, 143.) 


108  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. — Change  the  following  simple  sentences  to  complex  sen- 
tences by  expanding  the  participle  phrases  into  adjective  clauses : — 

1.  Those  fighting  custom  witli  grammar  are  foolish. 

2.  The  Constitution  framed  by  our  fathers  is  the  sheet-anchor  of 
our  liberties. 

3.  I  am  thy  father's  spirit,  doomed  for  a  certain  term  to  walk  the 
night. 

4.  Some  people,  having  lived  abroad,  undervalue  the  advantages  of 
their  native  land. 

5.  A  wife  and  children,  threatened  with  widowhood  and  orphan- 
age, have  knelt  at  your  feet  on  the  very  threshold  of  the  Senate 
Chamber. 

Direction. — Change  these  simple  sentences  to  complex  sentences  by 
expanding  the  infinitive  phrases  into  adjective  clauses : — 

1.  I  have  many  things  to  tell  you. 

2.  There  were  none  to  deliver. 

3.  He  had  an  ax  to  grind. 

4.  It  was  a  sight  to  gladden  the  heart. 

5.  It  was  a  din  to  fright  a  monster's  ear. 

Direction.— jPorm  complex  sentences  in  which  these  pronouns  and 
conjunctive  adverbs  shall  be  used  to  cormect  adjective  clauses : — 
Who,  which,  that,  what,  whoever,  and  whatever. 
When,  where,  and  why. 

Direction. — Change  that  which  in  the  following  sentences  to 
what,  and  what  to  that  which ;  whoever  to  he  who,  and 
whatever  to  anything  or  everything  which;  where  and 
when  to  at,  on,  or  in  which;  wherein  to  in  which; 
and  whereby  to  by  which: — 

1.  That  which  is  seen  is  temporal. 

2.  What  God  hath  Joined  together  let  not  man  put  asunder. 


Complex  Sentence— Adverb  Clause.  109 


3.  Whoever  lives  a  pious  life  blesses  his  race. 

4.  Whatever  we  do  has  an  influence. 

5.  Scholars  have  grown  old  and  blind,  striving  to  put  their  hands 
on  the  very  spot  where  brave  men  died. 

6.  The  year  when,  Chaucer  was  born  is  uncertain. 

7.  The  play's  the  thing  wherein  I'll  catch  the  conscience  of  the 
king. 

8.  You  take  my  life  in  taking  the  means  whereby  I  live. 

Direction. — Expand  these  possessive  and   explanajtory  modifiers 
into  adjective  clauses : —  . 

1.  A  man's  heart  deviseth  his  way. 

2.  Reason's  whole  pleasure,  all  the  joys  of  sense, 
Lie  in  three  words — health,  peace,  and  competence. 


LESSON    62. 

Direction. — Analyze  the  first  nine  sentences  in  the  preceding  Les- 
son, and  write  illustrative  sentences  as  here  directed: — 

Give  an  example  of  an  adjective  clause  modifying  a  subject  ;  one 
modifying  a  complement ;  one  modifying  the  principal  word  of  a 
phrase  ;  one  modifying  some  word  omitted  ;  one  whose  connective 
is  a  subject ;  one  whose  connective  is  a  complement  ;  one  whose  con- 
nective is  the  principal  word  of  a  phrase  ;  one  whose  connective  is 
a  possessive  modifier  ;  one  whose  connective  is  omitted  ;  one  whose 
connective  is  an  adverb. 


LESSON    63. 

COMPLEX    SENTENCE-ADVERB    CLAUSE. 

Introductory  Hints. — He  arrived  late.     You  have  learned  that 
you  can  expand  the  adverb  late  into  a  phrase,  and  say.  He  arrived  at 


110  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


midnight.  You  are  now  to  learn  that  you  can  expand  it  into  a  clause 
of  Time,  and  say,  He  arrived  when  the  clock  struck  twelve. 

He  stood  where  I  am.  The  clause  introduced  by  where  expresses 
Place,  and  is  equivalent  to  the  adverb  here  or  to  the  phrase  in  this 
place. 

This  exercise  is  as  profitable  as  it  is  pleasant.  The  clause  intro- 
duced by  as  .  .  .  as  modifies  profitable,  telling  the  Degree  of  the 
quality  expressed  by  it. 

A  clause  that  does  the  work  of  an  adverb  is  an  Adverb  ClausCo 


Analysis. 
The  adverb  clause  may  express  time. 
1.  When  pleasure  calls,  we  listen. 

jisfgn  Explanation.— WAew  modifies  both  listen  and 


'       V  calls,  denoting  that  the  two  acts  take  place  at  the 

■^  same  time.     It  also  connects  pleasure  calls,  SiS  an  a.d.- 

■^  verb  modifier,  to  listen.     The  oflaces  of  the  conjunc- 

pleasure  |\  calU     ^j^^  adverb  when  may  be   better   understood    by 

expanding  it  into  two  phrases  thus :  We  listen  at  the  time  at  which  pleasure 

calls.     At  the  time  modifies  listen,  at  which  modifies  calls,  and  which  connectSo 

The  line  representing  tohen  is  made  up  of  three  parts  to  picture  these 

three  offices.    The  part  representing  wJien  as  a  modifier  of  calls  is,  for 

convenience,  placed  above  its  principal  line  instead  of  below  it. 

2.  While  Louis  XIV.  reigned,  Europe  was  at  war. 

3.  When  my  father  and  my  mother  forsake  me,  then  the  Lord  will 
take  me  up. 

Lord   I    will  take    i   me 

%  into  at  the  tim£,  and  when  into  at  which, 


\^    '     nT        ^  Explanation.— By     changing     then 

\            \     \"""^  into  at  the  tim£,  and  when  into  at  which, 

>  ^  \  '                                              ' 

^  ..            w  the  offices  of  these  two  words  will  be 

— —  clearly  seen.     For  explanation    of    the 

^ —  ^  I  me     jjj^g  representing  when,   see  J.ft,<'son  14 


mother 


T 


and  (1)  above. 


Complex  Sentence— Adverb  Clause.  Ill 


4.  Cato,  before*  he  durst  give  himself  the  fatal  stroke,  spent  the 
night  in  reading  Plato's  "Immortality." 

5~  Many  f  ^  J^ar  is  in  its  grave  since  I  crossed  this  restless  wavCo 

Sxplanation. — Many  here  modifies  year,  or,  rather,  year  as  modi- 
fied by  a. 

6.  Blucher  arrived  on  the  field  of  Waterloo  just  as  Wellington  was 
meeting  the  last  onslaught  of  Napoleon. 

Mucker  .   arrived  Explanation.— Jws<  may 

'       ^—X  ^  be  treated   as  a  modifier  of 

\%N.^  the    dependent    clause.      A 

\  closer     analysis,      however. 

WeWington  |\tga.s  meding  ,  omlarujU  ^^^j^  ^^^^  .^  ^  modifier  of 

as.  Just  as=jtist  at  the  time 
at  which.  Just  here  modifies  at  the  time.  At  the  time  is  represented  in  tne 
diagram  by  the  first  element  of  the  as  line. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  place. 

7.  Where  the  snow  falls,  there  is  freedom. 

8.  Pope  skimmed  the  cream  of  good  sense. and  expression  wherever 
he  could  find  it. 

9.  The  wind  bloweth  where  it  listeth. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  degree  or  result. 

10.  Washington  was  as  good  as  he  was  great. 

Explanation. — The  adverb  clause  as  he  was  great  modifies  the  first 
as,  which  is  an  adverb  modifying  good.  The  first  as,  modified  by  the 
adverb  clause,  answers  the  question,  Good  to  what  extent  or  degree  ? 
The  second  as  modifies  great  and  performs  the  office  of  a  conjunction, 
and  is  therefore  a  conjunctive  adverb.     Transposing,  and  expanding 

♦  Some  prefer,  in  constructions  like  this,  to  treat  before,  ere,  after,  till,  until,  and 
fince  as  prepositions  followed  by  noun  clauses, 
t  See  (11),  Lesson  38,  and  foot-note. 


112  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


as  .  ^  .  as  into  two  phrases,  we  ha\ne,  Washington  was  good  in  ths 
degree  in  which  he  was  great.     See  diagram  of  (3)  and  of  (20). 

11.  The*  wiser  he  grew,  the*  humbler  he  became, 

Explanation. — The  words  the  .  ,  .  the  are  similar  in  office  to 
as  .  .  .  as — He  became  humbler  in  that  degree  in  which  he  became 
wiser. 

12.  Gold  is  heavier  than  iron. 

Gold  I    is    \   heamer  Explanation.  —  Heavier  =  heavy    beyond 

the  degree,  and  than  =  in  which.    The  sentence 
'%^  =  Oold  is  heavy  beyond  tlie  degree  in  which  iron 

.  \  is  heavy.    Is  and  heavy  are   omitted.    Fre- 

'  I  quently  words  are  omitted  after  ihaii  and  as. 

Than  modifies  heavy  (understood)  and  connects  the  clause  expressing  de- 
gree to  heavier  J  and  is  therefore  a  conjunctive  adverb. 

13.  To  be  right  is  better  than  to  be  president. 

Explanation. — To  be  right  is  better  (good  in  a  greater  degree) 
than  to  be  president  (would  be  good). 

14.  It  was  so  cold  that  the  mercury  froze,  f 

Explanation. — The  degree  of  the  cold  is  here  shown  by  the  effect  it 
produced.  The  adverb  so,  modified  by  the  adverb  clause  that  the  mer- 
cury froze,  answers  the  question.  Cold  to  what  degree  ?  The  sentence 
=  It  was  cold  to  that  degree  in  which  the  mercury  froze.  That,  as 
you  see,  modifies  froze  and  connects  the  clauses  ;  it  is  therefore  a 
conjunctive  adverb. 

15.  It  was  so  cold  as  to  freeze  the  mercury. 

*  The^  here,  is  not  the  ordinary  adjective  the.  It  is  the  Anglo-Saxon  demonstrative 
pronoun  used  in  an  instrumental  sense.  It  is  here  an  adverb.  The  first  the  =  by  how 
much,  and  modifles  wiser  ;  the  second  the  =  by  so  much,  and  modifies  humbler. 

t  In  this  sentence,  also  in  (15)  and  (17),  the  dependent  clause  is  sometimes  termed 
a  clause  of  Result  or  Consequence.  Clauses  of  Result  express  different  logical  rela- 
tions, and  cannot  always  be  classed  under  Degrct'. 


Adverb  Clause— Continued.  113 


explanation. — It  was  so  cold  as  to  freeze  the  mercury  (would 
indicate  or  require). 

16.  Dying  for  a  principle  is  a  higher  degree  of  virtue  than  scolding 
for  it. 

17.  He  called  so  loud  that  all  the  hollow  deep 
..J  ^   like,  it  ^f  j^gjj  resounded. 

V^^  18.  To  preach  is  easier  than  to  practice. 

J  |\  see     I  it  19.  One's  breeding  shows  itself  nowhere  more 

""^-^  than  in  his*  religion. 

20.  The  oftener  I  see  it,  the  better  I  like  it^ 


LESSON    64. 

ADVERB   CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 

Introductory  Hints. — He  lived  as  the  fool  lives.  The  adverb 
clause,  introduced  by  as,  is  a  clause  of  Manner,  and  is  equivalent  to 
the  adverb  foolishly  or  to  the  phrase  in  a  foolish  manner. 

The  ground  is  wet  because  it  has  rained.  The  adverb  clause,  intro- 
duced by  because,  assigns  the  Real  Cause  of  the  ground's  being  wet. 

It  has  rained,  for  the  ground  is  wet.  The  adverb  clause,  introduced 
by  for,  does  not  assign  the  cause  of  the  raining,  but  the  cause  of  our 
believing  that  it  has  rained  ;  it  gives  the  Evidence  of  what  is 
asserted.! 

Analysis. 
The  adverb  clause  may  express  manner. 
1.  He  died  as  he  lived. 

♦  For  the  use  of  he  instead  of  the  indefinite  pronoun  one  repeated,  see  Lesson  124. 
t  Evidence  should  be  carefully  distinguished  from  Cause.   Cause  produces  an  effect? 
Evidence  produces  knowledge  of  an  effect. 
Clauses  of  Evidence  are  sometimes  treated  aa  independent. 


114  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Explanation. — He  died  in  the  manner  in  which  he  lived.     For 
diagram,  see  (1),  Lesson  63. 

2.  The  upright  man  speaks  as  he  thinks. 

3.  As  the  upright  man  thinks  so  he  speaks. 

(For  diagram  oi  as  .  .  .  so,  see  when  .  .  .  then  (3),  Lesson  63.) 

4.  As  is  the  boy  so  will  be  the  man. 

5.  The  waves  of  conversation  roll  and  shape  our  thoughts  as  the 
surf  rolls  and  shapes  the  pebbles  on  the  shore. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  real  cause. 

6.  The  ground  is  wet  because  it  has  rained. 
ff  round  .is    \  wet 

\^        \^  Explanation. — Because,  being  a  mere  con- 

%  junction,  stands  on  a  line  wholly  dotted. 

if  \has.rained 

7.  Slang  is  always  vulgar,  as  it  is  an  affected  way  of  talking. 

8.  We  keep  the  pores  of  the  skin  open,  for  through  them  the  blood 
throws  off  its  im)  irities. 

9.  Since  the  b  eath  contains  poisonous  carbonic  acid,  wise  people 
ventilate  their  sleeping  rooms. 

10.  Sea-bathing  is  the  most  healthful  kind  of  washing,  as  it  com- 
bines fresh  air  and  vigorous  exercise  with  its  other  benefits, 

11.  Wheat  is  the  most  valuable  of  gr   ns  be-  ause  bread  is  made 
from  ts  flour. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  evidence. 

12.  God  was  angry  with  the  children  of  Israel,  for  he  overthrew 
them  in  the  wilderness. 

13.  Tobacco  and  the  potato  are  American  products,  since  Raleigh 
found  them  here. 

14.  It  rained  last  night,  because  the  ground  is  wet  this  morning. 


Adverb  Clause— Continued.  115 


16-  We  Americans  must  all  be  cuckoos,  for  we  build  our  homes  m 
the  nests  of  other  birds. 


LESSON    65. 

ADVERB    CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 

Introductory  Hints. — If  it  rains,  the  ground  will  he  wet.  The 
adverb  clause,  introduced  by  if,  assigns  what,  if  it  occurs,  will  be  the 
cause  of  the  ground's  being  wet,  but,  as  here  expressed,  is  only  a 
Condition  ready  to  become  a  cause. 

He  takes  exercise  that  he  may  get  well.  The  adverb  clause,  intro- 
duced by  that,  assigns  the  cause  or  the  motive  or  the  Purposes  of  his 
exercising. 

The  ground  is  dry,  although  it  has  rained.  The  adverb  clause^ 
introduced  by  although,  expresses  a  Concession.  It  is  conceded 
that  a  cause  for  the  ground's  not  being  dry  exists  ;  but,  in  spite  of 
this  opposing  cause,  it  is  asserted  that  the  ground  is  dry. 

All  these  dependent  clauses  of  real  cause,  evidence,  condition,  pur- 
pose, and  concession  come,  as  you  see,  under  the  general  head  of 
Cause,  although  only  the  first  kind  assigns  the  cause  proper. 


Analysis. 
The  adverb  clause  may  express  condition. 

1.  If  the  air  is  quickly  compressed,  enough  heat  is  evolved  to  pro- 
duce combustion. 

2.  Unless  your  thought   packs   easily  and  neatly  in  verse,  always 
use  prose. 

{Unless  =  if  not.) 

3.  If  ever  you  saw  a  crow  with  a  king-bird  after  him,  you  have  an, 
image  of  a  dull  speaker  and  a  lively  listener. 

4.  Were  it  not  for  the  warm  waters  of  the  Gulf  Stream,  the  harbors 


116  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


and  the  rivers  of  Britain  would  be  blocked  up  with  ice  for  a  great  part 
®f  the  year. 

Explanation. — The  relative  position  of  the  subject  and  the  verb 
renders  the  if  unnecessary.     This  omission  of  */  is  a  common  idiom. 

5.  Should  the  calls  of  hunger  be  neglected,  the  fat  of  the  body  is 
thrown  into  the  grate  to  keep  the  furnace  in  play. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  purpose. 

6.  Language  was  given  us  that  we  might  say  pleasant  things  to 
Bach  other. 

Explanation. — That^  introducing  a  clause  of  purpose,  is  a  mere 
conjunction. 

7.  Spiders  have  many  eyes  in  order  that  they  may  see  in  many 
directions  at  one  time. 

Explanation. — The  phrases  in  order  that,  so  that  =  that. 

8.  The  ship-canal  across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez  was  dug  so  that 
European  vessels  need  not  sail  around  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  -to 
reach  the  Orient. 

9.  The  air  draws  up  vapors  from  the  sea  and  the  land,  and  retains 
them  dissolved  in  itself  or  suspended  in  cisterns  of  clouds,  that  it 
may  drop  them  as  rain  or  dew  upon  the  thirsty  earth. 

The  adverb  clause  may  express  concession. 

10.  Although  the  brain  is  only  one-fortietli  of  the  body,  about  one- 
sixth  of  the  blood  is  sent  to  it. 

11.  Though  the  atmosphere  presses  on  us  with  a  load  of  fifteen 
pounds  on  every  square  inch  of  surface,  still  we  do  not  feel  its 
weight. 

12.  Though  thou  shouldst  bray  a  fool  in  a  mortar,  yet  will  not  his 
foolishness  depart  from  him. 


Composition— Adverb  ClauseSn  H'^ 


13.  If  the  War  of  the  Roses  did  not  utterly  destroy  English  freedom 
it  arrested  its  progress  for  a  hundred  years. 

explanation. — If  here  =  even  if=  ■  \ough. 

14.  Though  many  rivers  flow  into  the  Mediterranean,  they  are  nc 
sufficient  to  make  up  the  loss  caused  by  evaporation. 


LESSON   66. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERB   CLAUSES. 

COMMA— RULE.— An  Adverb  Clause  is  set  off  by  the  comma 
unless  it  closely  follows  and  restricts  the  word  it  modifies. 

Explanation. — I  met  him  in  Paris,  when  I  was  last  abroad.  I  will 
not  call  him  villain,  because  it  would  he  unparliamentary.  Paper  was 
invented  in  China,  if  the  Chinese  tell  the  truth.  In  these  sentences 
the  adverb  clauses  are  not  restrictive,  but  are  supplementary,  and  are 
added  almost  as  afterthoughts. 

Glass  bends  easily  when  it  is  red-hot.  Leaves  do  not  turn  red 
because  the  frost  colors  them.  It  will  break  if  you  touch  it.  Here 
the  adverb  clauses  are  restrictive  ;  each  is  very  closely  related  in 
thought  to  the  independent  clause,  and  may  almost  be  said  to  be  the 
essential  part  of  the  sentence. 

When  the  adverb  clause  precedes,  it  is  set  off. 

Direction. —  Tell  why  the  adverb  clauses  are  or  are  not  set  off  in 
Lessons  63  and  64. 

Direction. —  Write,  after  these  independent  clauses,  adverb  clauses 
of  time,  place,  degree,  etc.  {for  connectives,  see  Lesson  100),  and 
pu/nct  ate  according  to  the  Rule : — 

I.  The  leaves  of  the  water-maple  turn  red — time. 


118  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


2.  Our  eyes  cannot  bear  the  light — time, 

3.  Millions  of  soldiers  sleep— ^p/ace. 

4.  The  Bunker  Hill  Monument  stands— /)/ace, 

5.  Every  spire  of  grass  was  so  edgec  and  tipped  with  dew--=4«<y«'S* 

6.  Vesuvius  threw  its  lava  so  far — aegree. 

7.  The  tree  is  inclined — manner. 

8c  The  lion  springs  upon  his  prey — manner. 

9.  Many  persons  died  in  the  Black  Hole  of  Calcutta — cause 

10.  Dew  does  not  form  in  a  cloudy  night — cause, 

11.  That  thunderbolt  fell  a  mile  away — evidence. 

12.  We  dream  in  our  sleep — evidence. 

13.  Peter  the  Great  worked  in  Holland  in  disguise— ^^wr^se. 

14.  We  put  salt  into  butter  and  upon  meat— purpose. 

15.  Iron  bends  and  molds  easily — condition. 

16.  Apples  would  not  fall  to  the  ground — condilion. 

17.  Europe  conquered  Napoleon  at  last — concession. 

18.  Punishment  follows  every  violation  of  nature's  IsLVf^—'eonem^^m* 


LESSON    67. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERB    CLAUSES, 
ARRANGEMENT. 

The  adverb  clause  may  stand  before  the  independent 
clause,  between  the  parts  of  it,  or  after  it. 

Direction. — Think,  if  you  can,  of  another  adverb  clause  to  follow 
each  independent  clause  in  the  preceding  Lesson,  and  hy  means  of  a 
caret  (a)  indicate  where  this  adverb  clause  may  properly  stand  in  the 
sentence.  Note  its  force  in  its  several  positions,  and  attend  to  the 
punctuation.     Some  of  these  adverb  clauses  can  stand  only  at  the  end. 


Composition— Adverb  Clauses.  lid 


LESSON    68. 

COMPOSITION-ADVERB    CLAUSES. 

An  adverb  clause  may  be   contracted  into   a  participle 
or  a  participle  phrase. 

Example. —  When  he  saw  me,  he  stopped  =  Seeing  me,  he  stopped. 
Direction. — Contract  these  complex  sentences  to  simple  ones : — 

1.  Coral  animals,  when    they  die,    form   vast  islands  with  their 
bodies. 

2.  The  water  will  freeze,  for  it  has  cooled  to  32". 

3.  Truth,  though  she  may  be  crushed  to  earth,  will  rise  again. 

4.  Error,  if  he  is  wounded,  writhes  with  pain,  and  dies  among  his 
worshipers. 

5.  Black  clothes   are   too  warm   in   summer,   because   they  absorb 
heat. 

An   adverb    clause    may   be   contracted   to   an   absolute 
phrase. 

Example. —  When  night  came  on,  we  gave  up  the  chase  =  Night 
coming  on,  we  gave  up  the  chase. 

Direction. — Contract  these  complex  sentences  to  simple  ones: — 

1.  When  oxygen  and  carbon  unite  in  the  minute  blood-vessels,  heat 
is  produced, 

2.  It  will  rain  to-morrow,  for  ''Probabilities"  predicts  it. 

3.  Washington  retreated  from  Long  Island  because  his  army  was 
outnumbered. 

4.  If  Chaucer  is  called  the  father  of  our  later  English   poetry, 
Wycliffe  should  be  called  the  father  of  our  later  English  prose. 

An  adverb  clause  may  be  contracted  to  a  prepositional 


120  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


phrase  having  for  its  principal  word  (1)  a  participle,  (2)  an 
infinitive,  or  (3)  a  noun. 

Direction. — Contract  each  of  these  adverb  clauses  to  a  prepositional 
phrase  having  a  participle  for  its  principal  word : — 

Model. — They  will  call  before  they  leave  the  city  =  They  will  call 
before  leaving  the  city. 

1.  The  Gulf  Stream  reaches  Newfoundland  before  it  crosses  the 
Atlantic. 

2.  If  we  use  household  words,  we  shall  be  better  understood. 

3.  He  grew  rich  because  he  attended  to  his  business. 

»  4.  Though  they  persecuted  the  Christians,  they  did  not  exterminate 
them. 

Direction. — Contract  each  of  these  adverb  clauses  to  an  infinitive 
phrase : — 

Model. — She  stoops  that  she  may  conquer  =  She  stoops  to  conquer. 

1.  The  pine  tree  is  so  tall  that  it  overlooks  all  its  neighbors. 

2.  Philip  II.  built  the  Armada  that  he  might  conquer  England. 

3.  He  is  foolish,  because  he  leaves  school  so  early  in  life. 

4.  What  would  I  not  give  if  I  could  see  you  happy  ! 

5.  We  are  pained  when  we  hear  God's  name  used  irreverently. 

Direction. — Contract  each  of  these  adverb  clauses  to  a  prepositional 
phrase  having  a  noun  for  its  principal  word: — 

Model. — He  fought  that  he  might  obtain  glory  =  He  fought  for 
glory. 

1    Luther  died  where  he  was  born. 

2.  A  fish  breathes,  though  it  has  no  lungs. 

3.  The  general  marched  as  he  was  ordered. 

4.  Criminals  are  punished  that  society  may  be  safe. 

5.  If  you  are  free  from  vices,  you  may  expect  a  happy  old  age. 


Composition— Adverb  Clauses.  121 


An  adverb  clause  may  be  contracted  by  simply  omitting 
such  words  as  may  easily  be  supplied. 

Example. —  When    you    are    right,   go    ahead  =  When    right,   go 
ahead. 
Direction. — Contract  these  adverb  clauses: — 

1.  Chevalier  Bayard  was  killed  while  he  was  fighting  for  Francis  I, 

2.  Error  must  yield,  however  strongly  it  may  be  defended. 
Explanation. — However  modifies  strongly,   and  connects   a  con- 
cessive clause. 

3.  Much  wealth  is  corpulence,  if  it  is  not  disease. 

4.  No  other  English  author  has  uttered  so  many  pithy  sayings  as 
Shakespeare  has  uttered. 

(Frequently,  clauses  introduced  by  as  and  than  are  contracted.) 

5.  The  sun  is  many  times  larger  than  the  earth  is  large. 
(Sentences  like  this  never  appear  in  the  full  form.) 

6.  This  is  a  prose  era  rather  than  it  is  a  poetic  era. 

An  adverb  clause  may  sometimes  be  changed  to  an 
adjective  clause  or  phrase. 

Example. — This  man  is  to  be  pitied,  because  he  has  no  friends  = 
This  man,  who  has  no  friends,  is  to  be  pitied  =  This  man,  having  no 
friends,  is  to  be  pitied  =  This  man,  without  friends,  is  to  be  pitied. 

Direction.— CAan^'e  each  of  the  following  adverb  clauses  first  to  an 
adjective  clause  and  then  to  an  adjective  phrase : — 

1.  A  man  is  to  be  pitied  if  he  does  not  care  for  music. 

2.  When  a  man  lacks  health,  wealth,  and  friends,  he  lacks  three 
good  things. 


122  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON    69. 

ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Tell  the  kind  of  adverb  clause  in  each  of  the  sentences 
in  Lesson  68,  and  note  the  different  positions  in  which  these  clauses 
stand. 

Select  two  sentences  containing  time  clauses  ;  one,  a  place  clause; 
two,  degree ;  one,  manner ;  two,  real  cause;  two,  evidence ; 
two,  purpose ;  two,  condition ;  and  two,  concession,  and 
analyze  them. 

LESSON    70. 

REVIEW. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  illustrating  the  different  kinds  of 
adverb  clauses  named  in  Lessons  63,  64,  65,  and  explain  fully  the  office 
of  each.  For  connectives,  see  Lesso7i  100.  Tell  why  the  adverb  clauses 
■in  Lesson  68  are  or  are  not  set  off  by  the  comma.  Compose  sentences 
illustrating  the  different  ways  of  contracting  adverb  clauses. 


Exercises  on  the  Composition  of  the  Sentence  and  the 
Paragraph. 

(See  pages  165-168.) 
To  THE  Teacher.— See  Buggestions  to  the  teacher,  pages  30,  150. 


LESSON    71. 

THE    COMPLEX   SENTENCE-NOUN   CLAUSE. 

Introductory  Hints. — In  Lessons  40  and  41  you  learned  that  an 
infinitive  phrase  may  perform  many  of  the  offices  of  a  noun.  You  are 
now  to  learn  that  a  clause  may  do  the  same. 


The  Complex  Sentence— Noun  Clause.  123 


Obedience  is  better  than  sacrifice  =  To  obey  is  better  than  sacrifice  = 
That  men  should  obey  is  better  than  sacrifice.  The  dependent  clause 
that  men  should  obey  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and  is  the  Subject  of  is. 

Many  people  believe  that  the  beech  tree  is  never  struck  by  lightning. 
The  dependent  clause,  introduced  by  that,  is  equivalent  to  a  noun, 
and  is  the  Object  Complement  of  believe. 

The  fact  that  mold,  mildew,  and  yeast  are  plants  is  wonderful. 
The  clause  introduced  by  that  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and  is  E^xplan- 
atory  of  fact, 

A  peculiarity  of  English  is,  that  it  has  so  many  borrowed  words. 
The  clause  introduced  by  that  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and  is  an 
Attribute  Complement  relating  to  peculiarity. 

Your  future  depends  very  much  on  who  your  companions  are.  The 
clause  who  your  companions  are  is  equivalent  to  a  noun,  and  is  the 
Principal  Term  of  a  Phrase  introduced  by  the  preposition  on. 

A  clause  that  does  the  work  of  a  noun  is  a  Noun  Clause. 


Analysis. 
The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  subject. 
1.  That  the  earth  is  round  has  been  proved. 

^^  -  Explanation.— The  clause  that  the  earth 


earth.   iti\.^round  **«  rowid  is  used  like  a  noun  as  the  subject 

^      I  of  has  been  proved.     The  conjunction  that  * 

JL         h     hp  d      introduces  the  noun  clause. 

^  ^    I ' —    "  This  is  a  peculiar  kind  of  complex  sen- 

tence. Strictly  speaking,  there  is  here  no  principal  clause,  for  the  whole 
sentence  cannot  be  called  a  clause,  i.e.,  a  part  of  a  sentence.  We  may  say 
that  it  is  a  complex  sentence  in  which  the  whole  sentence  takes  the  place 
of  a  principal  clause. 

*  "  Thatrwss,  originally  the  neuter  demonstrative  pronoun,  used  to  point  to  the  fact 
stated  in  an  independent  sentence ;  as,  It  was  good  ;  he  saw  that.  By  an  inversion 
of  the  order  this  became,  He  saw  that  (namely)  it  was  good,  and  so  passed  into  the 
form  He  saw  that  it  was  good,  where  that  has  been  transferred  to  the  accessory  clause, 
and  has  become  a  mere  sign  of  grammatical  subordination."— C.  P.  Mason. 


124  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


2.  That  the  same  word  is  used  for  the  soul  of  man  and  for  a  glass 
of  gin  is  singular. 

3.  "  What  have  I  done  ?  "  is  asked  by  the  knave  and  the  thief. 

4.  Who  was  the  discoverer  of  America  is  not  yet  fully  determined 
by  historians. 

Explanation. — The  subject  clause  is  here  an  indirect  question. 
See  Lesson  74. 

5.  When  letters  were  first  used  is  not  certainly  known. 

6.  **  Where  is  Abel,  thy  brother  ? "  smote  the  ears  of  the  guilty 
Cain. 

7.  When  to  quit  business  and  enjoy  their  wealth  is  a  problem 
never  solved  by  some. 

Explanation.— W^e/i  to  quit  business  and  enjoy  their  wealth  is  an 
indirect  question.  When  to  quit  business  =  When  they  are  to  quit 
business,  or  When  they  ought  to  quit  business.  Such  constructions 
may  be  expanded  into  clauses,  or  they  may  be  treated  as  phrases 
equivalent  to  clauses. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  object  complement. 

8.  Galileo  taught  that  the  earth  moves. 


Galileo  ,  taught 


earth  ,i  moves        Explanation. — Here    the    clause    intro- 
NS;     I  duced  by  that  is  used  like  a  noun  as  the 

'  object  complement  of  taught. 


9.  The  Esquimau  feels  intuitively  that  bear's  grease  and  blubber 
are  the  dishes  for  his  table. 

10.  The  world  will  not  anxiously  inquire  who  you  are. 

11.  It  will  ask  of  you,  "What  can  you  do?" 

12.  The  peacock  struts  about,  saying,  "What  a  fine  tail  I  have  !'* 

13.  He  does  not  know  which  to  choose. 
(See  explanation  of  (7),  above.) 


Noun  Clause— Continued.  125 


14.  No  one  can  tell  how  or  when  or  where  he  will  die. 

15.  Philosophers  are  still  debating  whether  the  will  has  any  control 
over  the  current  of  thought  in  our  dreams. 


LESSON     72. 

NOUN   CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  attribute  comple- 
ment. 

1.  A  peculiarity  of  English  is,  that  it  has  so  many  borrowed  words. 

2.  Tweed's  defiant  question  was,  "  What  are  you  going  to  do  about 
it?" 

3.  The  question  ever  asked  and  never  answered  is,   **  Where  and 
how  am  I  to  exist  in  the  Hereafter  ? " 

4.  Hamlet's  exclamation  was,  "What  a  piece  of  work  is  man  !" 

5.  The  myth  concerning  Achilles  is,  that  he  was  invulnerable  in 
every  part  except  the  heel. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  explanatory  modi- 
fier. 

6.  It  has  been  proved  that  the  earth  is  round. 

that 


earth  ,  is 


\  ground  Explanation.— The    grammatical    sub- 

Ng;  '    I  jeet  it  has  no  meaning  till  explained  by  the 


\  ,    noun  clause. 

J  ■  has  been  proved^ 


7.  It  is  believed  that  sleep  is  caused  by  a  diminution  in  the  supply 
of  blood  to  the  brain. 

8.  The  fact  that  mold,  mildew,  and  yeast  are  plants  is  wonderful. 

9.  Napoleon  turned  his  Simplon  road  aside  in  order  that  he  might 
save  a  tree  mentioned  by  Caesar. 


136  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Elxplanatioii. — Unless  in  order  that  is  taken  as  a  conjunction  con- 
necting an  adverb  clause  of  purpose  (see  (7),  Lesson  65),  the  clause 
introduced  by  that  is  a  noun  clause  explanatory  of  order  * 

10.  Shakespeare's  metaphor,  "Night's  candles  are  burnt  out,"  is 
one  of  the  finest  in  literature. 

11.  The  advice  that  St.  Ambrose  gave  St.  Augustine  in  regard  to 
conformity  to  local  custom  was  in  substance  this  :  "  When  in  Rome, 
do  as  the  Romans  do." 

12.  This  we  know,  that  our  future  depends  on  our  present. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  used  as  principal  term  of  a 
prepositional  phrase. 

13.  Have  birds  any  sense  of  why  they  sing  ? 

birds   I  Have 

'  '  \-     T"  Explanation.— W%  they  sing 

is  an  indirect  question,  here  used 
as  the  principal  term  of  a  prepo- 
sitional phrase. 

14.  There  has  been  some  dispute  about  who  wrote  "Shakespeare's 
Plays  " 

15.  We  are  not  certain  that  an  open  sea  surrounds  the  Pole. 

Explanation. — By  supposing  of  to  stand  before  that,  the  noun 
clause  may  be  treated  as  the  principal  term  of  a  prepositional  phrase 
modifying  the  adjective  certain.  By  supplying  of  the  fact,  the  noun 
clause  will  become  explanatory. 

16.  We  are  all  anxious  that  the  future  shall  bring  us  success  and 
triumph. 

17.  The  Sandwich  Islander  is  confident  that  the  strength  and  valor 
of  his  slain  enemy  pass  into  himself. 

*  A  similar  explanation  may  be  made  of  on  condition  that,  in  case  that,  introducing 
adverb  clauses  expressing  condition. 


Composition— Noun  Clause.  127 


mSSON    73. 

COMPOSITION-NOUN    CLAUSE. 

COMMA— RULE.— The  Noun  Clause  used  as  attribute  com- 
plement is  generally  set  off  by  tlie  comma. 

Remarks. — Present  usage  seems  to  favor  the  omission  of  the 
comma  with  the  clause  used  as  subject  or  as  object  complement, 
except  where  the  comma  would  contribute  to  clearness. 

The  punctuation  of  the  explanatory  clause  is  like  that  of  other 
explanatory  modifiers.  See  Lesson  34.  But  the  real  subject  made 
explanatory  of  it  is  seldom  set  off.  See  next  Lesson  for  the  punc- 
tuation of  noun  clauses  that  are  questions  or  quotations. 

Direction. — Oive  the  reasons  for  the  use  or  the  omission  of  the 
comma  with  the  noun  clauses  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 

By  using  it  as  a  substitute  for  the  subject  clause,  this 
clause  may  be  placed  last. 

Example. —  That  the  story  of  William  Tell  is  a  myth  is  now  be- 
lieved =  It  is  now  believed  that  the  story  of  William  Tell  is  a  myth. 

Direction. — By  the  aid  of  the  expletive  it,  transpose  five  subject 
clauses  in  Lesson  71. 

Often  the  clause  used  as  object  complement  may  be 
placed  first. 

Direction. —  Transpose  such  of  the  clauses  used  as  object  comple- 
ments, in  the  preceding  Lessons,  as  admit  transposition.  Punctuate 
them  if  they  need  punctuation. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  made  prominent  by  separating 
it  and  inserting  the  independent  clause  between  its  parts. 


128  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Example. — The  story  of  William  Tell,  it  is  now  believed,  is  a  myth. 

(Notice  that  the  principal  clause,  used  parenthetically,  is  set  off  by 
the  comma.) 

Dipection. —  Write  the  following  sentences,  using  the  independent 
clauses  paretithetically  : — 

1.  We  believe  that  the  first  printing-press  in  America  was  set  up 
in  Mexico  in  1536. 

2.  I  am  aware  that  refinement  of  mind  and  clearness  of  thinking 
usually  result  from  giwnmatical  studies. 

3.  It  is  true  that  the  glorious  sun  pours  down  his  golden  flood  as 
cheerily  on  the  poor  man's  cottage  as  on  the  rich  man's  palace. 

Directioii. —  Vary  the  following  sentence  so  as  to  illustrate  five 
different  kinds  of  noun  clauses : — 

Model. — 1.   That  stars  are  suns  is  the  belief  of  astronomers. 

2.  Astronomers  believe  that  stars  are  suns. 

3.  The  belief  of  astronomers  is,  that  stars  are  suns. 

4.  The  belief  that  stars  are  suns  is  held  by  astronomers. 

5.  Astronomers  are  confident  that  stars  are  suns. 

1.  Our  conclusion  is,  that  different  forms  of  government  suit  differ- 
ent stages  of  civilization. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  contracted  by  changing  the 
predicate  to  a  participle,  and  the  subject  to  a  possessive. 

Example. —  That  he  was  brave  cannot  be  doubted  =  Zrts  beinff 
brave  cannot  be  doubted. 

Direction. — Make  the  following  complex  sentences  simple  by  chang- 
ing the  noun  clauses  to  phrases : — 

1.  That  the  caterpillar  changes  to  a  butterfly  is  a  curious  fact. 

2.  Everybody  admits  that  Cromwell  was  a  great  leader. 

3.  A  man's  chief  objection  to  a  woman  is,  that  she  has  no  respect 
for  the  newspaper. 


Composition— Noun  Clause.  129 


4.  The  thought  that  we  are  spinning  around  the  sun  at  the  rate  of 
twenty  miles  a  second  makes  us  dizzy. 

5.  She  was  aware  that  I  appreciated  her  situation. 

The  noun  clause  may  be  contracted  by  making  the  pred- 
icate, when  changed  to  an  infinitive  phrase,  the  objective 
complement,  and  the  subject  the  object  complement. 

Direction. — 3Iake  the  following  complex  sentences  simple  by  chang- 
ing the  predicates  of  the  noun  clauses  to  objective  complements,  and  the 
subjects  to  object  complements: — 

Model. — King    Ahasuerus    commanded    that    Haman    should    he 
hanged  = 
King  Ahasuerus  commanded  Haman  to  be  hcmged. 

1.  I  believe  that  he  is  a  foreigner. 

2.  The  Governor  ordered  that  the  prisoner  should  be  set  free. 

3.  Many  people  believe  that  Webster  was  the  greatest  of  American 
statesmen. 

4.  How  wide  do  you  think  that  the  Atlantic  ocean  is? 

5.  They  hold  that  taxation  without  representation  is  unjust. 

Direction. — Expand  into  complex  sentences  such  of  the  sentences  in 
Lesson  41  as  contain  an  objective  complement  and  an  object  complement 
that  together  are  equivalent  to  a  clause. 

A  noun  clause  may  be  contracted  to  an  infinitive  phrase. 
Example. —  That  he  should  vote   is  the  duty  of  every  American 
citizen  =  To  vote  is  the  duty  of  every  American  citizen. 

Direction. — Contract  these  noun  clauses  to  infinitive  phrases: — 

1.  That  we  guard  our  liberty  with  vigilance  is  a  sacred  duty. 

2.  Every  one  desires  that  he  may  live  long  and  happily. 

3.  The  effect  of  looking  upon  the  sun  is,  that  the  eye  is  blinded. 

4.  Caesar  Augustus  issued  a  decree  that  all  the  world  should  be  taxed. 


130  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech.. 


5.  We  are  all  anxious  that  we  may  make  a  good  impression. 

6.  He  does  not  know  whom  he  should  send. 

7.  He  cannot  find  out  how  he  is  to  go  there. 


LESSON     74. 

COMPOSITION-NOUN    CLAUSE-CONTINUED. 

QUOTATION  MARKS— RULE.— Quotation  marks  ("  ")  in- 
close  a  copied  word  or  passage. 

Remarks. — Single  marks  ('  ')  inclose  a  quotation  within  a  quo- 
tation. If,  within  the  quotation  having  single  marks,  still  another 
quotation  is  made,  the  double  marks  are  again  used  ;  as,  * '  The  incor- 
rectness of  the  dispatches  led  Bismarck  to  declare,  '  It  will  soon  come 
to  be  said,  "He  lies  like  the  telegraph.'""  This  introduction  of  a 
third  quotation  should  generally  be  avoided,  es'^ecially  where  the 
three  marks  come  at  the  end,  as  above. 

When  a  quotation  is  divided  by  a  parenthetical  expression,  each 
part  of  the  quotation  is  inclosed  ;  as,  "I  would  rather  be  right,"  said 
Clay,  "than  be  president." 

In  quoting  a  question,  the  interrogation  point  must  stand  within 
the  quotation  marks;  as.  He  asked,  "What  are  you  living  for?" 
but,  when  a  question  contains  a  quotation,  this  order  is  reversed  ;  as. 
May  we  not  find  "sermons  in  stones"  ?  So  also  with  the  exclamation 
point. 

CAPITAL  LETTER— RULE.— The  first  word  of  a  direct  quo- 
tation making  complete  sense  or  of  a  direct  question  intro- 
duced into  a  sentence  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter. 

Remarks. — A  direct  quotation  is  one  whose  exact  words,  as 
well  as  thought,  are  copied  ;  as,  Nathan  said  to  David,  "  Thou  art 
the  man."     An  indirect  quotation  is  one  whose  thought,  but  not 


Composition— Noun  Clause— Continued.  131 


whose  exact  words,  is  copied  ;  as,  Nathan  told  David  that  he  was  the 
man.  The  reference  here  of  the  pronoun  he  is  somewhat  ambiguous. 
Guard  against  this,  especially  in  indirect  quotations. 

The  direct  quotation  is  set  off  by  the  comma,  begins  with  a  capital 
letter,  and  is  inclosed  within  quotation  marks — though  these  may  be 
omitted.  The  indirect  quotation  is  not  generally  set  off  by  the  com- 
ma, does  not  necessarily  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and  is  not  inclosed 
within  quotation  marks. 

A  direct  question  introduced  into  a  sentence  is  one  in  which  the 
exact  words  and  their  order  in  an  interrogative  sentence  (see  Lesson 
55)  are  preserved,  and  which  is  followed  by  an  interrogation  point  ; 
as,  Cain  asked,  *  ^Am  I  my  brother's  keeper  9 "  An  indirect  ques- 
tion is  one  which  is  referred  to  as  a  question,  but  not  directly  asked 
or  quoted  as  such,  and  which  is  not  followed  by  an  interrogation 
point  ;  as,  Cain  asked  whether  he  was  his  brother'' s  keeper. 

The  direct  question  introduced  into  a  sentence  is  set  off  by  the 
comma  (but  no  comma  is  used  after  the  interrogation  point),  begins 
with  a  capital  letter,  and  is  inclosed  within  quotation  marks — though 
these  may  be  omitted.  An  indirect  question  is  not  generally  set  off 
by  a  comma,  does  not  necessarily  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and  is 
not  inclosed  within  quotation  marks. 

If  the  direct  quotation,  whether  a  question  or  not,  is  formally 
introduced  (see  Lesson  147),  it  is  preceded  by  the  colon  ;  as,  Nathan's 
words  to  David  were  these  :  "  Thou  art  the  man."  He  put  the 
question  thus  :  ''Can  you  do  it  .^" 

Direction. — Point  out  the  direct  and  the  indirect  quotations  and 
questions  in  the  sentences  of  Lesson  71,  tell  why  they  do  or  do  noi 
begin  with  capital  letters,  and  justify  the  use  or  the  omission  of  the 
comma,  the  interrogation  point,  and  the  quotation  marks. 

Direction. — Rewrite  these  same  sentences,  changing  the  direct  quo- 
tations and  questions  to  indirect,  and  the  indirect  to  direct. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. —  Write  five  sentences  containing  direct  quotations,  some 
of  which  shall  be  formally  introduced,  and  some  of  which  shall  be 
questions  occurring  at  the  beginning  or  in  the  middle  of  the  sentence. 
Change  these  to  the  indirect  form^  and  look  carefully  to  the  punctu- 
ation and  the  capitalization. 

Direction. —  Write  sentences  illustrating  the  last  paragraph  of  the 
Remarks  under  the  Rule  for  Quotation  Marks. 


LESSON    75. 

ANALYSIS. 

Direction. — Analyze  the    sentences  given   for   arrangement    and 
contraction  in  Lesson  73, 


LESSON    76. 

THE    COMPOUND    SENTENCE. 

Introductory  Hints. — Cromwell  made  one  revolution,  and  Monk 
made  another.  The  two  clauses  are  independent  of  each  other.  The 
second  clause,  added  by  the  conjunction  and  to  the  first,  continues 
the  line  of  thought  begun  by  the  first. 

Man  has  his  will,  but  woman  has  her  way.  Here  the  conjunction 
connects  independent  clauses  whose  thoughts  stand  in  contrast  with 
each  other. 

The  Tudors  were  despotic,  or  history  belies  them.  The  independent 
clauses,  connected  by  or,  present  thoughts  between  which  you  may 
choose,  but  either,  accepted,  excludes  the  other. 

The  ground  is  wet,  therefore  it  has  rained.  Here  the  inferred  fact, 
the  raining,  really  stands  to  the  other  fact,  the  wetness  of  the  ground, 
as  cause  to  effect — the  raining  made  the  ground  wet.     It  has  rained. 


The  Compound  Sentence.  133 


hence  the  ground  is  wet.  Here  the  inferred  fact,  the  wetness  of  the 
ground,  really  stands  to  the  other  fact,  the  raining,  as  effect  to  cause 
— the  ground  is  made  wet  by  the  raining.  But  this  the  real,  or  logi- 
cal, relation  between  the  facts  in  either  sentence  is  expressed  in  a  sen- 
tence of  the  compound  form — an  a7id  may  be  placed  before  therefore 
and  hence.  Unless  the  connecting  word  expresses  the  dependence  of 
one  of  the  clauses,  the  grammarian  regards  them  both  as  independent. 

Temperance  promotes  health,  intemperance  destroys  it.  Here  the 
independent  clauses  are  joined  to  each  other  by  their  very  position  in 
the  sentence — connected  without  any  conjunction.  This  kind  of  con- 
nection is  common. 

Sentences  made  up  of  independent  clauses  we  call  CompoaiK^ 
Sentences. 


DEFINITION.— A  Clause  is  a  part  of  a  sentence  containing 
a  subject  and  its  predicate. 

DEFINITION.— A  Dependent  Clause  is  one  used  as  an 
adjective,  an  adverb,  or  a  noun. 

DEFINITION.— An  Independent  Clause  is  one  not  depend- 
ent on  another  clause. 

SENTENCES    CLASSIFIED    WITH    RESPECT    TO    FORM. 

DEFINITION.— A  Simple  Sentence  is  a  sentence  that  con- 
tains but  one  subject  and  one  predicate,  either  or  both  of 
which  may  be  compound. 

DEFINITION.— A  Complex  Sentence  is  a  sentence  com- 
posed of  an  independent  clause  and  one  or  more  dependent 
clauses. 

DEFINITION.— A  Compound  Sentence  is  a  sentence  com- 
posed of  two  or  more  independent  clauses. 


134  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


bayonets   . 


Analysis. 
Independent  Clauses  in  the  same  line  of  thought. 

1.  Light  has  spread,  and  bayonets  think. 

Lufht   .  Tuis  spread        Explanation.-The  clauses  are  of  equal  rank, 

1 !  and  so  the  lines   on  which  they  stand  are  shaded 

alike,  and  the  line  connecting  them  is  not  slanting. 

1  As  one  entire  clause  is  connected  with  the  other,  the 

^^^^"^      connecting  line  is  drawn  between  the  predicates 
merely  for  convenience. 

Oral  Analysis. — This  is  a  compound  sentence  because  it  is  made 

up  of  independent  clauses. 

2.  Hamilton  smote  the  rock  of  the  national  resources,  and  abundant 
streams  of  revenue  gushed  forth. 

3.  Some   are  born  great,   some  achieve  greatness,  and  some  have 
greatness  thrust  upon  them. 

Independent    Clauses    expressing    thoughts    in   con- 
trast. 

4.  The  man  dies,  but  his  memory  lives. 

5.  Put  not  your  trust  in  money,  but  put  your  money  in  trust. 

6.  Ready  writing  makes  not  good  writing,  but  good  writing  brings 
on  ready  writing. 

Independent    Clauses    expressing  thoughts   in   alter- 
nation. 

7.  Be  temperate  in  youth,  or  you  will  have  to  be  abstinent  in  old 
age. 

8.  Places  near  the  sea  are  not  extremely  cold  in  winter,  nor  are  they 
extremely  warm  in  summer. 

(Here  a  choice  is  denied.) 

9.  Either  Hamlet  was  mad,  or  he  feig.ned  madness  admirably. 
(See  (16),  Lesson  20.) 


Composition— Compound  Sentence.  135; 


Independent  Clauses  expressing  thoughts  one  of  whick 
is  an  inference  from  the  other. 

10.  People  in  the  streets  are  carrying  umbrellas,  hence  it  must  be 
raining. 

11.  I  have  seen,  therefore  I  believe. 
T .  Tiave  seen 


Explanation.— In  such  constructions  and  may  be 
J|    ;   believe       supplied,  or  the  adverb  may  be  regarded  as  the  con- 
\!rt.  nective.     The  diagram  illustrates  therefore  as  connect- 

^  ive. 

\^ 
Independent  Clauses  joined  in  the  sentence  without 
a  conjunction. 

12.  The  camel  is  the  ship  of  the  ocean  of  sand  ;  the  reindeer  is  the 
camel  of  the  desert  of  snow. 

13.  Of  thy  unspoken  word  thou  art   master  ;  thy  spoken  word  is; 
master  of  thee. 

14.  The  ship  leaps,  as  it  were,  from  billow  to  billow. 
Explanation. — As  it  were  is  an  independent  clause  used  paren- 
thetically.    As  simply  introduces  it. 

15.  Religion — who  can  doubt  it  ? — is  the  noblest  of  themes  for  the 
exercise  of  intellect. 

16.  What  grave  (these  are  the  words  of  Wellesley,  speaking  of  the 
two  Pitts)  contains  such  a  father  and  such  a  son  ! 


LESSON     77. 

COMPOSITION-COMPOUND    SENTENCE. 

COMMA  and  SEMICOLON— RULE.— Jn^/epencicwf  Clauses^ 
when    short   and   closely    connected,    are    separated   hy   the 


136  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


comma ;  but,  when  the  clauses  are  slightly  connected,  or  when 
they  are  themselves  diyided  into  parts  by  the  comma,  the  semi 
colon  is  used. 

Remark. — A  parenthetical  clause  may  be  set  off  by  the  comma  oi 
by  the  dash,  or  it  may  be  inclosed  within  marks  of  parenthesis— the 
marks  of  parenthesis  showing  the  least  degree  of  connection  in  sense. 
See  the  last  three  sentences  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 

E]xainples. — 1.  We  must  conquer  our  passions,  or  our  passions  will 
conquer  us.  2.  The  prodigal  robs  his  heirs  ;  the  miser  robs  himself. 
3.  There  is  a  fierce  conflict  between  good  and  evil  ;  but  good  is  in  the 
ascendant,  and  must  triumph  at  last. 

(The  rule  above  is  another  example.) 

Direction. — Punctvate  the  following  sentences,  and  give  your 
reasons : — 

1.  The  wind  and  the  rain  are  over  the  clouds  are  divided  in  heaven 
over  the  green  hill  flies  the  inconstant  sun. 

2.  The  epic  poem  recites  the  exploits  of  a  hero  tragedy  represents  a 
disastrous  event  comedy  ridicules  the  vices  and  follies  of  mankind 
pastoral  poetry  describes  rural  life  and  elegy  displays  the  tender  emo- 
tions of  the  heart. 

3.  Wealth  may  seek  us  but  wisdom  must  be  sought. 

4.  The  race  is  not  to  the  swift  nor  the  battle  to  the  strong. 

5.  Occidental  manhood  springs  from  self-respect  Oriental  manhood 
flnds  its  greatest  satisfaction  in  self-abasement.* 

6.  The   more  discussion    the  better  if   passion  and  personality  be 

♦  In  this  sentence  we  have  a  figure  of  speech  called  Antithesis,  in  which  things 
unlike  in  some  particular  are  set  over  against  each  other.  Each  part  shines  with  its 
own  light  and  with  the  light  reflected  from  the  other  part.  Antithesis  gives  great  force 
to  the  thought  expressed  hy  it.  Sentences  containing  it  furnish  us  our  best  examples 
of  Balanced  Sentences.  You  will  find  other  antitheses  in  this  Lesson  and  in  the 
preceding. 


Composition— Compound  Sentence.  137 


avoided  and  discussion  even  if  stormy  often  winnows  truth  from 
error. 

Direction. — Assign  reasons  for  the  punctuation  of  the  independent 
clauses  in  the  preceding  Lesson. 

Direction. —  Using  the  copulative  and,  the  adversative  but,  and 
the  alternative  or  or  nor,  form  compound  sentences  out  of  the  follow- 
ing simple  sentences,  and  give  the  reasons  for  your  choice  of  con- 
nectives : — 

Read  not  that  you  may  find  material  for  argument  and  conver- 
sation. The  rain  descended.  Read  that  you  may  weigh  and  consider 
the  thoughts  of  others.  Can  the  Ethiopian  change  his  skin  ?  Right- 
eousness exalteth  a  nation.  The  floods  came.  Great  was  the  fall  of 
it.  Language  is  not  the  dress  of  thought.  Can  the  leopard  change 
his  spots  ?  The  winds  blew  and  beat  upon  that  house.  Sin  is  a 
reproach  to  any  people.     It  is  not  simply  its  vehicle.     It  fell. 

Compound  sentences  may  be  contracted  by  using  but 
once  the  parts  common  to  all  the  clauses,  and  compounding 
the  remaining  parts. 

Example. — Time  waits  for  no  man,  and  tide  waits  for  no  man  = 
Time  and  tide  wait  for  no  man. 

Direction. — Contract  these  compound  sentences,  attending  carefully 
to  the  punctuation  : — 

1.  Lafayette  fought  for  American  independence,  and  Baron  Steuben 
fought  for  American  independence. 

2.  The  sweet  but  fading  graces  of  inspiring  autumn  open  the  mind 
to  benevolence,  and  the  sweet  but  fading  graces  of  inspiring  autumn 
dispose  the  mind  for  contemplation. 

3.  The  spirit  of  the  Almighty  is  within  us,  the  spirit  of  the  Almighty 
is  around  us,  and  the  spirit  of  the  Almighty  is  above  us. 


138  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


A  compound  sentence  may  be  contracted  by  simply 
omitting  from  one  clause  such  words  as  may  readily  be 
supplied  from  the  other. 

^Example. — He  is  witty,  but  he  is  vulgar  =  He  is  witty  but  vulgar. 

Direction. — Contract  these  sentences  : — 

1.  Mirth  should  be  the  embroidery  of  conversation,  but  it  should 
not  be  the  web. 

2.  It  is  called  so,  but  it  is  improperly  called  so. 

3.  Was  Cabot  the  discoverer  of  America,  or  was  he  not  the  dis- 
coverer of  America  ? 

4.  William  the  Silent  has  been  likened  to  Washington,  and  he  has 
justly  been  likened  to  him. 

5.  It  was  his  address  that  pleased  me,  and  it  was  not  his  dress 
that  pleased  me. 

A  compound  sentence  may  sometimes  be  changed  to  a 
complex  sentence  without  materially  changing  the  sense. 

Example. — Take  care  of  the  minutes,  and  the  hours  will  take 
care  of  themselves  =  If  you  take  care  of  the  minutes,  the  hours  will 
take  care  of  themselves.  (Notice  that  the  imperative  form  adds 
force.) 

Direction. — Change  these  compound  sentences  to  complex  sen- 
tences : — 

1.  Resist  the  devil,  and  he  will  flee  from  you. 

2.  Govern  your  passions,  or  they  will  govern  you. 

3.  I  heard  that  you  wished  to  see  me,  and  I  lost  no  time  in  coming. 

4.  He  converses,  and  at  the  same  time  he  plays  a  difficult  piece 
of  music. 

5.  He  was  faithful,  and  he  was  rewarded. 


Complex  and  Compound  Clauses.  139 


Dipection. — Change  one  of  the  independent  clauses  in  each  of  these 
sentences  to  a  dependent  clause,  and  then  change  the  dependent  clause 
to  a  participle  phrase  : — 

Model. — The  house  was  built  upon  a  rock,  and  therefore  it  did  not 
fall  = 
The  house  did  not  fall,  because  it  was  built  upon  a  rock  = 
The  house,  being  built  upon  a  rock,  did  not  fall. 

1.  He  found  that  he  could  not  escape,  and  so  he  surrendered. 

2.  Our  friends  heard  of  our  coming,  and  they  hastened  to  meet  us.. 

Direction. —  Using  and,  but,  and  or  as  connectives,  compose 
three  compound  sentences,  each  containing  three  independent  clauses^ 


LESSON    78. 

COMPLEX    AND    COMPOUND    CLAUSES. 

Introductory  Hints. — Sun  and  moon  and  stars  obey.  Peter  the 
Great  went  to  Holland,  to  England,  and  to  France.  I  came,  I  saw, 
J  conquered.  Here  we  have  co-ordinate  words,  co-ordinate  phrases, 
and  co-ordinate  clauses,  that  is,  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  equal 
rank,  or  order. 

Leaves  fall  so  very  quietly.  They  ate  of  the  fruit  from  the  tree  in 
the  garden.  Regulus  would  have  paused  if  he  had  been  the  man 
that  he  was  before  captivity  had  unstrung  his  sinews.  Here  just  as 
the  word  modifier  quietly  is  itself  modified  by  very,  and  very  by  so  ; 
and  just  as  fruit,  the  principal  word  in  a  modifying  phrase,  is  modi- 
fied by  another  phrase,  and  the  principal  word  of  that  by  another  : 
so  man,  in  the  adverb  clause  which  modifies  would  have  paused,  is 
itself  modified  by  the  adjective  clause  that  he  was,  and  was  by  the 
adverb  clause  before  captivity  had  unstrung  his  sinews.     These  three 


140  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


dependent  clauses  in  the  complex  clause  modifier,  like  the  three  words 
and  the  three  phrases  in  the  complex  word  modifier  and  the  com- 
plex phrase  modifier,  are  not  co-ordinate,  or  of  equal  rank. 

Mary  married  Philip;  hut  Elizaheth  would  not  marry,  although 
Parliament  frequently  urged  it,  and  the  peace  of  England  demanded 
it.  This  is  a  compound  sentence,  composed  of  the  simple  clause 
which  precedes  hut  and  the  complex  clause  which  follows  it — the 
complex  clause  being  composed  of  an  independent  clause  and  two 
dependent  clauses,  one  co-ordinate  with  the  other,  and  the  two  con- 
nected by  and. 


Analysis. 
The   clauses    of    complex    and    compound   sentences 
may  themselves  be  complex  or  compound. 

insects  hour  ,  liacl  passed 

"^ — \ — ■: —  t:^   »v      \ 

\    \     \  which  ,  are  admired  .     ..  \  ^    J. 

\     \  -* fr- opportunity  .\  had '.escaped 

\    \  ^-"1  'v ^^ — ^ —  — 

\     \  which  .  areidecorated^  ^  \     ; 

\  which  .     soar   !  Tie    |\^  tarried 

that  Explanation.— The  first  diagram  illustrates 

earth  \  is  ^round    the  analysis  of  the  compound  adjective  clause 
_  that    :«'?^^  in  (3)  below.     Each   adjective   clause  is  con- 

it  ^.r evolves:  nected  to  insects  by  which.    And  connects  the 

Se    proved     /\  co-ordinate    clauses.       The    second    diagram 

'  shows  that  the  clause  while  he  tarried  modifies 

both  predicates  of  the  independent  clauses.  While  modifies  had  passed,  had 
escaped,  and  tarried,  as  illustrated  by  the  short  lines  under  the  first  two 
verbs  and  the  line  over  tarried.  The  office  of  while  as  connective  is  shown 
by  the  dotted  lines.  The  third  diagram  illustrates  the  analysis  of  a  com- 
plex sentence  containing  a  compound  noun  clause. 

1.  Sin  has  a  great  many  tools,  but  a  lie  is  a  handle  which  fits  them 
all. 


Complex  and  Compound  Clauses.  141 


2.  Some  one  has  said  that  the  milkman's  favorite  song  should  be, 
"Shall  we  gather  at  the  river?" 

3.  Some  of  the  insects  which  are  most  admired,  which  are  deco- 
rated with  the  most  brilliant  colors,  and  which  soar  on  the  most 
ethereal  wings,  have  passed  the  greater  portion  of  their  lives  in  the 
bowels  of  the  earth, 

4.  Still  the  wonder  grew,  that  one  small  head  could  carry  all  he 
knew. 

5.  When  a  man  becomes  overheated  by  working,  running,  rowing, 
or  making  furious  speeches,  the  six  or  seven  millions  of  perspirati'^n 
tubes  pour  out  their  fluid,  and  the  whole  body  is  bathed  and  cooled. 

6.  Milton  said  that  he  did  not  educate  his  daughters  in  the  lan- 
guages, because  one  tongue*  was  enough  for  a  woman. 

7.  Glaciers,  flowing  down  moujfi^ain  gorges,  obey  the  law  of  rivers  ; 
the  upper  surface  flows  faster  than  the  lower,  and  the  center  faster 
than  the  adjacent  sides. 

8.  Not  to  wear  one's  best  things  every  day  is  a  maxim  of  New 
England  thrift,  which  is  as  little  disputed  as  any  verse  in  the  cate- 
chism, 

9.  In  Holland  the  stork  is  protected  by  law,  because  it  eats  the 
frogs  and  worms  that  would  injure  the  dikes. 

10.  It  is  one  of  the  most  marvelous  facts  in  the  natural  world  that, 
though  hydrogen  is  highly  inflammable,  and  oxygen  is  a  supporter  of 
combustion,  both,  combined,  form  an  element,  water,  which  is  de- 
structive to  fire. 

11.  In  your  war  of  1812,  when  your  arms  on  shore  were  covered  by 
disaster,  when  Winchester  had  been  defeated,  when  the  Army  of  the 
Northwest  had  surrendered,   and  when   the   gloom    of  despondency 

*  In  tongue,  as  here  used,  we  have  a  Pun— a  witty  expression  in  which  a  word 
agreeing  in  sound  with  another  word,  but  differing  in  meaning  from  it,  is  used  in  place 
of  that  other. 


142  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


liung,  like  a  cloud,  over  the  land,  who  first  relit  the  fires  of  national 
:glory,  and  made  the  welkin  ring  with  the  shouts  of  victory  ?* 


LESSON    79. 

EXPANSION. 

Participles  may  be  expanded  into  different  kinds  of 
clauses. 

Direction. — Expand  the  participles  in  these  sentences  into  the 
■clauses  indicated  : — 

1.  Simon  Peter,  having  a  sword,  drew  it.     (Adjective  clause.) 

2.  Desiring  to  live  long,  no  one  would  be  old.     (Concession.) 

3.  They  went  to  the  temple,  suing  for  pardon.     (Purpose.) 

4.  White  garments,  reflecting  the  rays  of  the  sun,  are  cool  in 
summer.     (Cause.) 

5.  Loved  by  all,  he  must  have  a  genial  disposition.     (Evidence.) 

6.  Writing  carefully,  you  will  learn  to  write  well.     (Condition.) 

7.  Sitting  there,  I  heard  the  cry  of  "  Fire  ! "     (Time.) 

8.  She  regrets  not  having  read  it.     (Noun  clause.) 

9.  The  icebergs  floated  down,  cooling  the  air  for  miles  around. 
(Independent  clause.) 

Absolute  phrases  may  be  expanded  into  different  kinds 
of  clauses. 

Direction. — Expand  these  absolute  phrases  into  the  clauses  indi- 
cated : — 

*  The  when  clauses  in  (11),  as  the  which  clauses  in  (3),  are  formed  on  the  same  plan, 
have  their  words  in  the  same  order.  This  principle  of  Parallel  Construction, 
requiring  like  ideas  to  be  expressed  alike,  holds  also  in  phrases,  as  in  (10)  and  (14), 
Lesson  28,  and  in  (14)  and  (15),  Lesson  46,  and  holds  supremely  with  sentences  in  the 
paragraph,  as  is  explained  on  page  168.  Parallel  construction  contributes  to  the 
clearness,  and  consequently  to  the  force,  of  expression. 


Expansion.  143 


1.  Troy  being  taken  by  the  Greeks,  ^neas  came  into  Italy.  (Time.) 

2.  The  bridges  having  been  swept  away,  we  returned.     (Cause.) 

3.  A  cause  not  preceding,  no  effect  is  produced.     (Condition.) 

4.  All    things  else    being  destroyed,    virtue   could   sustain   itself. 
(Concession.) 

5.  There  being  no  dew  this  morning,  it  must  have  been  cloudy  or 
windy  last  night.     (Evidence.) 

6.  The  infantry  advanced,    the    cavalry  remaining    in    the    rear. 
(Independent  clause.) 

Infinitive  phrases  may  be  expanded  into  different  kinds 
of  clauses. 

Direction. — Expand  these  infinitive  phrases  into  the  clauses  indi- 
cated :■ — 

1.  They  have  nothing  to  wear.     (Adjective  clause.) 

2.  The  weather  is  so  warm  as  to  dissolve  the  snow.     (Degree.) 

3.  Herod  will  seek  the  young  child  to  destroy  it.     (Purpose.) 

4.  The  adversative  sentence  faces,  so  to  speak,  half  way  about  on 
hut.     (Condition.) 

5.  He  is  a  fool  to  waste  his  time  so.     (Cause.) 

6.  I  shall  be  happy  to  hear  of  your  safe  arrival.     (Time.) 

7.  Hg  does  not  know  where  to  go.     (Noun  clause.) 

Direction. — Complete  these  elliptical  expressions  : — 
1.  And  so  shall  Regulus,  though  dead,  fight  as  he  never  fought 
before.  2.  Oh,  that  I  might  have  one  more  day  !  3.  He  is  braver 
than  wise.  4.  What  if  he  is  poor  ?  5.  He  handles  it  as  if  it  were 
glass.  6.  I  regard  him  more  as  a  historian  than  as  a  poet.  7.  He  is 
not  an  Englishman,  but  a  Frenchman.  8.  Much  as  he  loved  his 
wealth,  he  loved  his  children  better.  9.  I  will  go  whether  you  go  or 
not.  10.  It  happens  with  books  as  with  mere  acquaintances.  11.  No 
examples,  however  awful,  sink  into  the  heart. 


144  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON     80. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    REVIEW. 
Analysis. 

1.  Whenever  the  wandering  demon  of  Drunkenness  finds  a  ship 
adrift,  he  steps  on  board,  takes  the  helm,  and  steers  straight  for  the 
Maelstrom. — Holmes. 

2.  The  energy  which  drives  our  locomotives  and  forces  our  steam- 
ships through  the  waves  comes  from  the  sun. — Cooke. 

3.  No  scene  is  continually  loved  but  one  rich  by  joyful  human 
labor,  smooth  in  field,  fair  in  garden,  full  in  orchard. — Buskin. 

4.  What  is  bolder  than  a  miller's  neck-cloth,  which  takes  a  thief 
by  the  throat  every  morning  ? — German  Proverb. 

5.  The  setting  sun  stretched  his  celestial  rods  of  light  across  the 
level  landscape,  and  smote  the  rivers  and  the  brooks  and  the  ponds, 
and  they  became  as  blood. — Longfellow. 

6.  Were  the  happiness  of  the  next  world  as  closely  apprehended  as 
the  felicities  of  this,  it  were  a  martyrdom  to  live. — Sir  T.  Browne. 

7.  There  is  a  good  deal  of  oratory  in  me,  but  I  don't  do  as  well  as 
I  can,  in  any  one  place,  out  of  respect  to  the  memory  of  Patrick 
Henry. — Nashy. 

8.  Van  Twiller's  full-fed  cheeks,  which  seemed  to  have  taken  toll 
of  everything  that  went  into  his  mouth,  were  curiously  mottled  and 
streaked  with  dusky  red,  like  a  spitzenburg  apple. — Irving. 

9.  The  evil  of  silencing  the  expression  of  an  opinion  is,  that  it  is 
robbing  the  human  race. — Mill. 

10.  There  is  no  getting  along  with  Johnson  ;  if  his  pistol  misses 
fire,  he  knocks  you  down  with  the  butt  of  it. — Goldsmith. 

11.  We  think  in  words  ;  and,  when  we  lack  fit  words,  we  lack  fit 
thoughts. — White. 


Miscellaneous  Exercises  in  Review.  145 


12.  To  speak  perfectly  well  one  must  feel  that  he  has  got  to  the 
bottom  of  his  subject. — Whately. 

13.  Office  confers  no  honor  upon  a  man  who  is  worthy  of  it,  and  it 
will  disgrace  every  man  who  is  not. — Holland. 

14.  The  men  whom  men  respect,  the  women  whom  women  approve, 
are  the  men  and  women  who  bless  their  species. — Parton. 


LESSON    81. 

MISCELLANEOUS    EXERCISES    IN    REVIEW. 
Analysis. 

1.  A  ruler  who  appoints  any  man  to  an  office  when  there  is  in  his 
dominions  another  man  better  qualified  for  it  sins  against  God  and 
against  the  state. — Koran. 

2.  We  wondered  whether  the  saltness  of  the  Dead  Sea  was  not  Lot's 
wife  in  solution. — Curtis. 

3.  There  is  a  class  among  us  so  conservative  that  they  are  afraid 
the  roof  will  come  down  if  you  sweep  off  the  cobwebs. — Phillips. 

4.  Kind  hearts  are  more  than  coronets  ;  and  simple  faith,  than 
Norman  blood. — Tennyson. 

5.  All  those  things  for  which  men  plow,  build,  or  sail  obey 
virtue. — Sallust. 

6.  The  sea  licks  your  feet,  its  huge  flanks  purr  very  pleasantly  for 
you  ;  but  it  will  crack  your  bones  and  eat  you  for  all  that. — Holmes. 

7.  Of  all  sad  words  of  tongue  or  pen  the  saddest  are  these  :  "It 
might  have  been." — Whittier. 

8.  I  fear  three  newspapers  more  than  a  hundred  thousand  bayo- 
nets.— Napoleon. 

9.  He  that  allows  himself  to  be  a  worm  must  not  complain  if 
he  is  trodden  on. — Kant. 

10 


146  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


10.  It  is  better  to  write  one  word  upon  the  rock  than  a  thousand 
on  the  water  or  the  sand. — Gladstone. 

11.  A  breath  of  New  England's  air  is  better  than  a  sup  of  Old 
England's  ale. — Higginson. 

12.  We  are  as  near  to  heaven  by  sea  as  by  land. — Sir  H.  Gilbert. 

13.  No  language  that  cannot  suck  up  the  feeding  juices  secreted  for 
it  in  the  rich  mother-earth  of  common  folk  can  bring  forth  a  sound 
and  lusty  book. — Lowell. 

14.  Commend  me  to  the  preacher  who  has  learned  by  experience 
what  are  human  ills  and  what  is  human  wrong. — Boyd. 

15.  He  prayeth  best  who  loveth  best  all  things  both*  great  and 
small  ;  for  the  dear  God,  who  loveth  us,  he  made  and  loveth  all. — 
Coleridge. 

LESSON    82. 

REVIEW. 

Show  that  an  adjective  may  be  expanded  into  an  equivalent  phrase 
or  clause.  Give  examples  of  adjective  clauses  connected  by  who, 
whose,  which,  what,  that,  whichever,  when,  where,  why,  and  show  that 
each  connective  performs  also  the  oflBce  of  a  pronoun  or  that  of  an 
adverb.  Give  and  illustrate  fully  the  Rule  for  punctuating  the 
adjective  clause,  and  the  Caution  regarding  the  position  of  the  adjec- 
tive clause.  Show  that  an  adjective  clause  may  be  equivalent  to  an. 
infinitive  phrase  or  a  participle  phrase. 

Show  that  an  adverb  may  be  expanded  into  an  equivalent  phrase 
or  clause.  Illustrate  the  different  kinds  of  adverb  clauses,  and  explain 
the  oflBce  of  each  and  the  fitness  of  the  name.  Give  and  explain  fully 
the  Rule  for  the  punctuation  of  adverb  clauses.  Illustrate  the  differ- 
ent positions  of  adverb  clauses.  Illustrate  the  different  ways  of  con- 
tracting adverb  clauses. 

*  See  Lesson  20. 


Review.  147 


LESSON    83. 

REVIEW. 

Illustrate  five  different  offices  of  a  noun  clause.  Explain  the  two 
different  ways  of  treating  clauses  introduced  by  in  order  that, 
etc.  Explain  the  office  of  the  expletive  it.  Illustrate  the  different 
positions  of  a  noun  clause  used  as  object  complement.  Show  how 
the  noun  clause  may  be  made  prominent.  Illustrate  the  different 
ways  of  contracting  noun  clauses.  Give  and  illustrate  fully  the  Rule 
for  quotation  marks.  Illustrate  and  explain  fully  the  distinction 
between  direct  and  indirect  quotations,  and  the  distinction  between 
direct  and  indirect  questions  introduced  into  a  sentence.  Tell  all 
about  their  capitalization  and  punctuation. 


LESSON    84. 

REVIEW. 

Illustrate  and  explain  the  distinction  between  a  dependent  and  an 
independent  clause.  Illustrate  and  explain  the  different  ways  in 
which  independent  clauses  connected  by  and,  hut,  or,  and  hence  are 
related  in  sense.  Show  how  independent  clauses  may  be  joined  in 
sense  without  a  connecting  word.  Define  a  clause.  Define  the  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  clauses.  Define  the  different  classes  of  sentences  with 
regard  to  form.  Give  the  Rule  for  the  punctuation  of  independent 
clauses,  and  illustrate  fully.  Illustrate  the  different  ways  of  con- 
tracting independent  clauses.  Illustrate  and  explain  the  difference 
between  compound  and  complex  word  modifiers  ;  between  compound 
and  complex  phrases  ;  between  compound  and  complex  clauses.  Give 
participle  phrases,  absolute  phrases,  and  infinitive  phrases,  and 
expand  them  into  different  kinds  of  clauses.  What  three  parts  of 
speech  may  connect  clauses  ? 


148 


The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


GENERAL    REVIEW. 

To  THB  Teacher. — This  scheme  will  be  found  very  helpful  in  a  general  revietv. 
The  pupils  should  be  able  to  reproduce  it  except  the  Lesson  numbers. 

Scheme  for  the  Sentence. 

{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 

C  Noun  or  Pronoun  (8). 
Subject,     -j  Phrase  (38,  40). 
( Clause  (71). 


Predicate.     Verb  (11). 
Object. 


Complements. 


Attribute. 


Objective. 


Noun  or  Pronoun  (28). 
Phrase  (38,  40). 
Clause  (71). 

Adjective  (29,  30). 

Participle  (37). 

Noun  or  Pronoun  (29,  30). 

Phrase  (37,  40). 

Clause  (72). 

Adjective  (31). 
Participle  (37). 
Noun  (or  Pronoun)  (31). 
Phrase  (37,  41). 


Modifiers. 


Connectives. 


Adjectives  (12). 

Adverbs  (14). 

Participles  (37), 

Nouns  and  Pronouns  (33,  35). 

Phrases  (17,  37,  38,  40,  41). 

^  Clauses  (59,  60,  63,  64,  65). 

Conjunctions  (20,  64,  65,  71,  76). 
Pronouns  (59,  60). 
Adverbs  (60,  63,  64). 


_  Independent  Parts  (44). 

r  Meaning.     Declarative,  Interrogative,   Imperative,  Ex- 
Classes.    }  clamatory  (46). 

I  Form.     Simple,  Complex,  Compound  (76). 


Selections.  149 


Additional  Selections. 


To  THB  Teacher. — We  believe  that  you  will  find  the  preceding  pages  unuBually 
full  and  rich  in  illustrative  selections ;  but,  should  additional  work  be  needed  for 
reviews  or  for  maturer  classes,  the  following  selections  will  afEord  profitable  study. 
Let  the  pupils  discuss  the  thought  and  the  poetic  form,  as  well  as  the  logical  con- 
struction of  these  passages.    We  do  not  advise  putting  them  in  diagram. 

Speak  clearly,  if  you  speak  at  all ; 

Carve  every  word  before  you  let  it  fall. — Holmes. 

The  robin  and  the  blue-bird,  piping  loud, 
Filled  all  the  blossoming  orchards  with  their  glee  ; 

The  sparrows  chirped  as  if  they  still  were  proud 
Their  race  in  Holy  Writ  should  mentioned  be  ; 

And  hungry  crows,  assembled  in  a  crowd, 
Clamored  their  piteous  prayer  incessantly, 

Knowing  who  hears  the  ravens  cry,  and  said, 

**Give  us,  O  Lord,  this  day,  our  daily  bread  !" 

— Longfellou. 

Better  to  stem  with  heart  and  hand 

The  roaring  tide  of  life  than  lie, 
Unmindful,  on  its  flowery  strand. 

Of  God's  occasions  drifting  by. 

Better  with  naked  nerve  to  bear 

The  needles  of  this  goading  air 
Than,  in  the  lap  of  sensual  ease,  forego 
The  godlike  power  to  do,  the  godlike  aim  to  know. 

—  Whittier. 

Then  to  side  with  Truth  is  noble  when  we  share  her  wretched  crust, 
Ere  her  cause  bring  fame  and  profit,  and  't  is  prosperous  to  be  just ; 
Then  it  is  the  brave  man  chooses,  while  the  coward  stands  aside, 
Doubting  in  his  abject  spirit,  till  his  Lord  is  crucified. — Lowell. 


150  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Exercises  on  the  Composition  of  the  Sentence  and  the 
Paragraph. 

To  THE  Teacher.— These  and  similar  "Exercises"  are  entirely  outside  of  the 
regular  lessons.  They  are  offered  to  those  teachers  who  may  not,  from  lack  of  time 
or  of  material,  find  it  convenient  to  prepare  extra  or  miscellaneous  work  better  suited 
to  their  own  needs. 

The  questions  appended  to  the  following  sentences  are  made  easy  of  answer,  but  in 
continuing  such  exercises  the  teacher  will,  of  course,  so  frame  the  questions  as  more 
and  more  to  throw  responsibility  on  the  pupil. 

It  will  be  evident  that  this  work  aims  not  only  to  enforce  instruction  given  before 
Lesson  17,  but,  by  an  easy  and  familiar  examination  of  words  and  groups  of  words, 
to  prepare  the  way  for  what  is  afterwards  presented  more  formally  and  scientifically. 

ADAPTED    FROM    IBVING's    "SKETCH    BOOK." 

1.  From  this  piazza  the  wondering  Ichabod  entered  the  hall. 

2.  This  hall  formed  the  center  of  the  mansion  and  the  place  of 
usual  residence. 

3.  Here,  rows  of  resplendent  pewter,   ranged  on  a  long  dresser, 
dazzled  his  eyes. 

4.  In  one  corner  stood  a  huge  bag  of  wool  ready  to  be  spun. 

5.  In  another  corner  stood  a  quantity  of  linsey-woolsey  just  from 
the  loom. 

6.  Ears  of  Indian  corn  and  strings  of  dried  apples  and  peaches 
hung  in  gay  festoons  along  the  walls. 

7.  These  were  mingled  with  the  gaud  of  red  peppers. 

8.  A  door  left  ajar  gave  him  a  peep  into  the  best  parlor. 

9.  In  this  parlor  claw-footed   chairs  and  dark  mahogany  tables 
shone  like  mirrors. 

10.  Andirons,  with  their  accompanying  shovel  and  tongs,  glistened 
from  their  covert  of  asparagus  tops.* 

11.  Mock-oranges  and  conch-shells  decorated  the  mantelpiece. 

12.  Strings  of  various-colored  birds'  eggs  were  suspended  above  it. 

13.  A  corner-cupboard,  knowingly  left  open,  displayed  immense 
treasures  of  old  silver  and  well-mended  china. 

*  Asparagus  tops  were  commonly  used  to  ornament  the  old-fashioned  fireplace 
in  summer. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  151 


The  Uses  of  Words  and  Groups  of  Words. — Find  the  two  chief 
words  in  each  of  the  first  three  sentences.  As  a  part  of  the  sentence 
what  is  each  of  these  words  called  ?  To  what  class  of  words,  or  part 
of  speech,  does  each  belong  ?  Notice  that  in  the  fourth  and  the  fifth 
sentence  the  subject  is  put  after  the  predicate.  Change  the  order  of 
words  and  read  these  sentences.  Read  in  their  regular  order  the  two 
^hief  words  of  each.  In  the  sixth  sentence  what  word  says,  or  asserts, 
something  about  both  ears  and  strings  ?  In  the  ninth  sentence  put 
what  before  the  predicate  sJione  and  find  two  nouns  that  answer  the 
question.  In  the  eleventh  sentence  what  two  things  does  decorated  tell 
something  about  ?  In  the  seventh  sentence  these  stands  for  what  two 
nouns,  or  names,  found  in  the  preceding  sentence  ?  Find  the  subject 
and  the  predicate  of  each  sentence  from'  the  sixth  to  the  thirteenth  in- 
clusive. To  what  class  of  words  does  each  of  these  chief  parts  belong  ? 
Find  in  these  sentences  nouns  that  are  not  subjects.  Find  several 
compound  nouns  the  parts  of  which  are  joined  with  the  hyphen. 

The  and  wondering  in  the  first  sentence  go  with  what  noun  ?  The 
group  of  words  from  this  piazza  goes  with  what  word  ?  In  the 
second  sentence  put  what  before,  and  then  after,  formed,  and  find  the 
names  that  answer  these  questions.  What  does  of  the  mansidn  go 
with  ?  What  does  of  usual  residence  describe  ?  In  the  third  sentence 
what  word  tells  where  the  dazzling  occurred  ?  Find  a  group  of  three 
words  telling  what  the  rows  were  composed  of.  What  group  of  words 
tells  the  position  of '  the  rows  ?  In  the  fourth  sentence  what  group  of 
words  shows  where  the  bag  stood  ?  Of  wool  ready  to  be  spun  describes 
what  ?    A  and  huge  are  attached  to  what  ? 

To  THB  Teacher.— We  have  here  suggested  some  of  the  devices  by  which  pupils 
may  be  led  to  see  the  functions  of  words  and  phrases.  We  recommend  that  this  work 
oe  varied  and  continued  through  the  selection  above  and  through  others  that  may 
easily  be  made.  Such  exercises,  together  with  the  more  formal  and  searching  work 
of  the  regular  lessons,  will  be  found  of  incalculable  value  to  the  pupil.  They  will  not 
only  afford  the  best  mental  discipline  but  will  aid  greatly  in  getting  thought  and  in 
expressing  thought. 

The   Force   and   the   Beauty    of   the   Description   above. — 

Can  you  find  any  reason  why  we  are  invited  to  see  this  picture  through 
the  eyes  of  the  interested  and  wondering  Ichabod  ?  Do  you  think  the 
word  wondering  well  chosen  and  suggestive  ?    Look  through  this  pic- 


152  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


ture  carefully  and  tell  what  there  is  that  indicates  thrift,  industry,  and 
prosperity.  Find  more  common  expressions  for  center  of  the  mansio7i 
and  place  of  usual  residence.  Notice  in  the  third  sentence  the  effect  of 
resplendent  and  dazzled.  How  is  a  similar  effect  produced  in  the  ninth 
and  the  tenth  sentence  ?  You  see  that  this  great  artist  in  words  does 
not  here  need  to  repeat  his  language.  We  can  easily  imagine  that 
he  could  produce  the  same  effect  in  a  great  variety  of  ways.  In  the 
fourth  sentence  does  the  expression  ready  to  he  spun  tell  what  is  actu- 
ally seen,  or  what  is  only  suggested  ?  What  is  gained  by  this  expres- 
sion and  hy  just  from  the  loom  in  the  next  sentence  ?  Do  you  think  an 
unskillful  artist  would  have  used  in  gay  festoons  9  Read  the  seventh 
and  make  it  more  common  but  less  quaint.  Do  you  think  the  picture 
gains,  or  loses,  by  representing  the  door  as  "ajar"  instead  of  wide 
open  ?  Why  ?  Can  you  see  any  similar  effect  from  introducing  their 
covert  in  the  tenth  sentence  ?  What  does  the  expression  knowingly 
left  open  suggest  to  you  ?  This  selection  from  Irving  illustrates  the 
Descriptive  style  of  writing. 

Suggestions  for  Composition  Work. 

In  the  description  above  we  have  taken  some  liberties  with  the  origi- 
nal, for  we  have  broken  it  up  into  single  sentences.  The  parts  of  this 
picture  as  made  by  Irving  were  smoothly  and  delicately  blended  to- 
gether. 

You  may  rewrite  this  description  ;  and,  where  it  can  be  done  to  ad- 
vantage, you  may  join  the  sentences  neatly  together.  Perhaps  some 
of  these  sentences  may  be  changed  to  become  parts  of  other  sentences. 

To  THE  Teacher.— It  will  be  found  profitable  for  pupils  to  break  up  for  them- 
selves into  short  sentences  model  selections  from  classic  English,  and,  after  examining 
the  structure  and  style  as  suggested  above,  to  note  and,  so  far  as  possible,  explain  how 
these  were  blended  together  in  the  original.  A  written  reproduction  of  the  selection 
may  then  be  made  from  memory. 

This  study  of  the  thought,  the  structure,  and  the  style  of  the  great  masters  in 
language  must  lead  to  a  discriminating  taste  for  literature  ;  and  the  effect  upon  the 
pupil's  own  habits  of  thought  and  expression  will  necessarily  be  to  lift  him  above  the 
insipid,  commonplace  matter  and  language  that  characterize  much  of  the  so-called 
*'  original  "  composition  work. 

In  the  study  of  these  selections,  especially  in  the  work  of  copying,  the  rules  for 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  153 


punctuation,  and  other  rules,  formally  stated  further  on,  may  easily  be  anticipated 
informally. 

For  composition  work  more  nearly  original  the  class  might  read  together  or  discuss 
descriptions  of  home  scenes ;  then,  drawing  from  imagination  or  experience,  they 
might  make  descriptions  of  their  own.  In  these  descriptions  different  persons  might 
be  introduced,  with  their  attitudes,  employments,  and  acts  of  hospitality. 

For  exercises  in  narration  pupils  might  write  about  trips  to  these  homes,  telling 
about  the  preparation,  the  start,  the  journey,  and  the  reception.  (For  studies  on. 
narrative  style,  see  pages  157-162.) 

To  insure  thoroughness,  all  such  compositions  should  be  short. 


Exercises    on    the    Composition   of   the   Sentence    and  the 
Paragraph. 

ADAPTED    FROM    IRVIXG's    "SKETCH    BOOK." 

1.  Every  window  and   crevice  of  the  vast  barn  seemed  bursting 
forth  with  the  treasures  of  the  farm. 

2.  The  flail  was  busily  resounding  within  from  morning  till  night. 

3.  Swallows  and  martins  skimmed  twittering  about  the  eaves. 

4.  Rows  of  pigeons  were  enjoying  the  sunshine  on  the  roof. 

5.  Some  sat  with  one  eye  turned  up  as  if  watching  the  weather. 

6.  Some  sat  with  their  heads  under  their  wings  or  buried  in  their 
bosoms. 

7.  Others  were  swelling  and  cooing  and  bowing  about  their  dames. 

8.  Sleek,  unwieldy  porkers  were  grunting  in  the  repose  and  abun- 
dance of  their  pens. 

9.  From  these  pens  sallied  forth,  now  and  then,  troops  of  sucking 
pigs,  as  if  to  snuff  the  air. 

10.  A  stately  squadron  of  snowy  geese  was  riding  in  an  adjoining 
pond,  convoying  whole  fleets  of  ducks. 

11.  Regiments  of  turkeys  were  gobbling  through  the  farmyard. 

12.  Guinea  fowls  fretted  about,  like  ill-tempered  housewives,  with 
their  peevish,  discontented  cry. 

13.  Before  the  barn-door  strutted  the  gallant  cock,  clapping  his 
burnished  wings,  and  crowing  in  the  pride  and  gladness  of  his  heart — 
sometimes  tearing  up  the  earth  with  his  feet,  and  then  generously  call- 
ing his  ever-hungry  family  of  wives  and  children  to  enjoy  the  rich  mor- 
sel which  he  liad  discovered. 


154  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  Uses  of  Words  and  Groups  of  Words. — In  the  first  sen- 
tence seemed  asserts  something  about  what  two  things  ?  Every  goes 
with  what  word  or  words  ?  What  word  or  words  does  the  phrase  of  the 
vast  ham  make  more  definite  in  meaning  ?  The  two  words  window 
and  crevice  are  joined  together  by  what  word  ?  The  group  of  words 
bursting  forth  with  the  treasures  of  the  farm  describes  what  ?  Notice 
that  bursting  also  helps  seemed  to  say  something  about  window  and 
crevice.  Seemed  does  not  make  sense,  but  seemed  bursting  does.  What 
does  forth  modify  ?  What  does  with  the  treasures  of  the  farm  modify  ? 
In  the  third  sentence  what  two  nouns  form  the  subject  of  skimmed  ? 
What  connects  these  two  nouns  ?  In  the  fourth  what  word  tells  what 
the  rows  were  enjoying  ?  In  the  fifth  turned  up  as  if  watching  the 
weather  describes  what  ?  As  if  watching  the  tveather'  goes  with  what  ? 
The  expression  introduced  by  as  if  is  a  shortened  form.  Putting  in 
some  of  the  words  omitted,  we  have  as  if  they  were  watching  the 
weather.  They  were  watching  the  weather,  if  standing  by  itself,  would 
make  a  complete  sentence.  You  see  that  one  sentence  may  be  made  a 
part  of  another  sentence.  What  does  each  of  the  two  phrases  under 
their  ivings  and  buried  in  their  bosoms  describe  ?  What  connects  these 
two  phrases  ?  In  the  seventh  sentence  were  is  understood  before  coo- 
ing and  before  bowing.  How  many  predicate  verbs  do  you  find,  each 
asserting  something  about  the  pigeons  represented  by  others  9  Why 
are  these  verbs  not  separated  by  commas  ?  What  two  nouns  form  the 
principal  part  of  the  phrase  in  the  eighth  sentence  ?  What  connects 
these  two  nouns  ?  Read  the  ninth  sentence  and  put  the  subject  before 
the  predicate.  You  may  now  explain  as  if  to  snuff  the  air,  remem- 
bering that  a  similar  expression  in  the  fifth  sentence  was  explained. 
In  the  tenth  sentence  convoying  ivhole  fleets  of  ducks  describes  what  ? 
Does  convoying  assert  anything  about  the  squadron  ?  Change  it  into 
a  predicate  verb.  In  the  twelfth  sentence  find  one  word  and  two 
phrases  joined  to  fretted.  Clapping,  crowing,  tearing,  and  calling,  in 
the  thirteenth,  all  describe  what  ?  Notice  that  all  the  other  words  fol- 
lowing the  subject  go  with  these  four.  Find  the  three  words  that 
answer  the  questions  made  by  putting  what  after  clapping,  tearing, 
calling.  What  phrase  tells  the  cause  of  crowing  ?  The  phrase  to 
enjoy  the  rich  morsel  which  he  had  discovered  tells  the  purpose  of 
what  ?  Which  he  had  discovered  limits  the  meaning  of  what  ?  The 
pronoun  which  here  stands  for  morsel.     Which  he  had  discovered 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  155 


=  He  had  discovered  morsel.  Here  you  will  see  a  sentence  has  again 
been  made  a  part  of  another  sentence.  Notice  that  without  which 
there  would  be  no  connection. 

To  THE  Teacher.— It  may  be  well  to  let  the  pupils  complete  the  examination  of  the 
etructm-e  of  the  sentences  above  and  point  out  nouns,  verbs,  pronouns,  adjectives,  and 
adverbs. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  the  questions  above  we  especially  anticipate  the  regular 
lessons  that  follow  Lesson  27.    This  we  do  in  all  such  "Exercises." 

The  Beauty  and  the  Force  of  the  Description  above. — Why 

may  we  say  that  this  farmyard  scene  is  surrounded  by  an  atmosphere 
of  plenty,  happiness,  and  content  ?  Which  do  you  prefer,  the  first 
sentence  above,  or  this  substitute  for  it  :  "  The  large  barn  was  entirely 
full  of  the  products  of  the  farm  "  ?  Give  every  reason  that  you  can 
find  for  your  preference.  We  often  speak  of  a  barn  or  storehouse  as 
•'bursting  with  plenty,"  or  of  a  table  as  "groaning  with  a  load  of 
good  things,"  when  there  is  really  no  bursting  nor  groaning.  Such 
expressions  are  called  Figures  of  Speech.  Examine  the  second  sen- 
tence and  compare  it  with  the  following  :  "The  men  were  busy  all 
day  pounding  out  the  grain  with  flails. "  Do  the  words  busily  resound- 
ing joined  to  flail  bring  into  our  imagination  men,  grain,  pound- 
ing, sound,  and  perhaps  other  things  ?  A  good  description  mentions 
such  things  and  uses  such  words  as  will  help  us  to  see  in  imagina- 
tion many  things  not  mentioned.  In  the  third  sentence  would  you 
prefer  skimmed  to  fleiv  ?  Why  ?  Compare  the  eighth  sentence  with 
this:  "Large  fat  hogs  were  grunting  in  their  pens  and  reposing 
quietly  with  an  abundant  supply  of  food."  Sleek,  unwieldy  porkers 
would  be  too  high-sounding  an  expression  for  you  to  use  ordinarily, 
but  it  is  in  tone  with  the  rest  of  the  description.  In  the  repose  and 
abundance  of  their  pens  is  much  better  than  the  words  substituted 
above.  It  is  shorter  and  stronger.  It  uses  instead  of  the  verb  repos- 
ing and  the  adjective  abundant  the  nouns  repose  and  abundance,  and 
makes  these  the  principal  words  in  the  phrase.  Eepose  and  abun- 
dance are  thus  made  the  striking  features  of  the  pen.  Arrange  the 
ninth  sentence  in  as  many  ways  as  possible  and  tell  which  way  you 
prefer.  Is  a  real  squadron  referred  to  in  the  tenth  sentence  ?  and 
were  the  geese  actually  convoying  fleets  ?  These  are  figurative  uses 
of  words.     What  can  you  say  of  regiments  in  the  eleventh  ?     In  the 


156  '  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


twelfth  Guinea  fowls  are  compared  to  housewives.  Except  in  this  one 
fancied  resemblance  the  two  are  wholly  unlike.  Such  comparisons  fre- 
quently made  by  as  and  like  are  called  Similes.  If  we  leave  out 
like  and  say,  "  Guinea  fowls  are  fretting  housewives,"  we  have  a  figure 
of  speech  called  Metaphor.  This  figure  is  used  above  when  flocks 
are  called  "squadrons"  and  "fleets."  In  the  thirteenth  sentence 
notice  how  well  chosen  and  forceful  are  the  words  strutted,  gallant, 
burnished,  generously,  ever-hungry,  rich  morsel.  See  whether  you  can 
find  substitutes  for  these  italicized  words.  Were  the  wings  actually 
burnished  ?    What  can  you  say  of  this  use  of  burnished  9 

Suggestions  for  Composition  Work. 

The  sentences  in  the  description  above,  when  read  together,  have  a 
somewhat  broken  or  jerky  effect.  You  may  unite  smoothly  such  as 
should  be  joined.  The  fourth,  fifth,  sixth,  and  seventh  can  all  be  put 
into  one.  There  is  danger  of  making  your  sentences  too  long.  Young 
writers  find  it  difficult  to  make  very  long  sentences  perfectly  clear  in 
meaning. 

To  THE  Teacher.— While  the  pupils'  thoughts  and  style  are  somewhat  toned  up 
by  the  preceding  exercises,  it  may  be  well  to  let  them  write  similar  descriptions  drawn 
from  their  reading,  their  observation,  or  their  imagination. 

If  the  compositions  contain  more  than  two  or  three  short  paragraphs  each,  it  will 
be  almost  impossible  to  secure  good  work. 


Exercises  on    the    Composition   of  the  Sentence  and   the 
Paragraph. 

FROM  franklin's  "AUTOBIOGRAPHY." 

1.  I  was  dirty  from  my  journey,  my  pockets  were  stuffed  out  with 
shirts  and  stockings,  and  I  knew  no  soul  nor  where  to  look  for  lodging. 
2.  I  was  fatigued  with  traveling,  rowing,  and  want  of  rest  ;  I  was  very 
hungry  ;  and  my  whole  stock  of  cash  consisted  of  a  Dutch  dollar  and 
about  a  shilling  in  copper.  3.  The  latter  I  gave  the  people  of  the  boat 
for  my  passage,  who  at  first  refused  it  on  account  of  my  rowing  ;  but  I 
insisted  on  their  taking  it. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  157 


1.  Then  I  walked  up  the  street,  gazing  about,  till  near  the  market- 
house  I  met  a  boy  with  bread.  2,  I  had  made  many  a  meal  on  bread, 
and,  inquiring  where  he  got  it,  I  w.ent  immediately  to  the  baker's  he 
directed  me  to,  in  Second  Street,  and  asked  for  biscuit,  intending  such, 
as  we  had  in  Boston  ;  but  they,  it  seems,  were  not  made  in  Philadel- 
phia. 3.  Then  I  asked  for  a  three-penny  loaf,  and  was  told  they  had 
none  such.  4.  So  not  considering  or  knowing  the  difference  of  money, 
or  the  greater  cheapness  and  the  names  of  his  bread,  I  bade  him  give 
me  three-penny  worth  of  any  sort.  5.  He  gave  me,  accordingly,  three 
great  puffy  rolls.  6.  I  was  surprised  at  the  quantity,  but  took  it ;  and, 
having  no  room  in  my  pockets,  walked  off  with  a  roll  under  each  arm, 
and  eating  the  other. 

The  Uses  of  TVords  and  Groups  of  Words. — Break  up  sentence 
1,  paragraph  1,  into  three  distinct  sentences,  and  tell  what  changes  this, 
will  make  in  capitals  and  punctuation.  Do  the  same  for  3.  Which 
read  more  closely  together,  and  are  more  closely  connected,  the  parts 
of  2,  or  of  1  ?  How  is  this  shown  to  the  eye  ?  Analyze  the  first  two 
sentences  you  made  from  1.  Find  two  object  complements  of  knew, 
one  a  noun  and  the  other  a  group  of  five  words.  Find  in  2  a  phrase 
whose  principal  part  is  made  up  of  three  nouns.  What  have  you 
learned  about  the  commas  used  with  these  nouns  ?  In  making  sepa- 
rate sentences  of  3  what  words  do  you  change  or  drop  ?  Are  these 
the  words  that  bilid  the  parts  of  3  together  ?  What  noun  is  used 
adverbially  after  gave  ?  Supply  a  preposition  and  then  tell  what 
phrases  modify  gave.  Find  the  object  complement  of  gave.  What 
modifies >e/wsec?  by  telling  when  ?    What,  by  telling  why  ? 

In  1,  paragraph  2,  who  is  described  as  gazing  about  ?  What  does 
gazing  about  modify  ?  Read  the  group  of  words  that  tells  how  far  or 
how  long  Franklin  walked  up  the  street.  Notice  that  this  whole  group 
is  used  like  an  adverb.  Find  in  it  a  subject,  a  predicate,  and  an  object 
complement.  Drop  till  and  see  whether  the  parts  of  1  make  separate 
sentences.  What  word,  then,  binds  these  two  sentences  into  one  ?  Read 
2  and  make  of  it  three  distinct  sentences  by  omitting  the  first  and  and 
the  word  hut.  The  second  of  these  three  sentences  just  made  contains 
several  sentences  which  are  not  so  easily  separated,  as  some  are  used 
like  single  words  to  make  up  the  main,  or  principal,  sentence.  In  this 
second  part  of  2  find  the  leading  subject  and  its  two  predicates.  •  Find 


158  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


a  phrase  belonging  to  /and  representing  Franklin  as  doing  something. 
Put  what  after  inquiring  and  find  the  object  complement.  What 
phrase  belongs  to  went,  telling  where  ?  He  directed  me  to  {whom)  be- 
longs to  what  ?  Who  is  represented  as  intending  ?  Intendirig  ^uch 
<is  we  had  in  Boston  belongs  to  what  ?  As  we  had  in  Boston  goes 
with  what  ?  Notice  that  it  seems  is  a  sentence  thrown  in  loosely  be- 
tween the  parts  of  another  sentence.  Such  expressions  are  said  to  be 
parenthetical.     Notice  the  punctuation. 

Notice  that  gazing,  inquiring,  intending,  considering,  knowing,  and 
having  are  all  modifiers  of  /found  in  the  different  sentences  of  para- 
graph 2.  Put  I  before  any  one  of  these  words,  and  you  will  see  that 
no  assertion  is  made.  These  words  illustrate  one  form  of  the  verb  (the 
participle),  and  look  in  1,  paragraph  1,  illustrates  the  other  form  (the 
infinitive),  spoken  of  in  Lesson  11  as  not  asserting.  Change  each  of 
these  participles  to  a  predicate,  or  asserting  form,  and  then  read  the 
sentences  in  which  these  predicates  are  found.  You  will  notice  that 
^ving  these  words  the  asserting  form  makes  them  more  prominent 
«,nd  forcible — brings  them  up  to  a  level  with  the  other  predicate 
verbs.  Participles  are  very  useful  in  slurring  over  the  less  important 
actions  that  the  more  important  may  have  prominence.  Show  that 
they  are  so  used  in  Franklin's  narrative. 

Examine  the  phrase  with  a  roll  under  each  arm,  and  eating  the  other, 
and  see  if  you  do  not  find  an  illustration  of  the  fact  that  even  great 
men  sometimes  make  slips.  Does  other  properly  mean  one  of  three 
things  ?    Try  to  improve  this  expression. 

The  Grouping  of  Sentences  into  Paragraphs. — The  sentences 
above,  as  you  see,  stand  in  two  groups.  Those  of  each  group  are  more 
closely  related  to  one  another  than  they  are  to  the  sentences  of  the 
other  group.  Do  you  see  how  ?  In  studying  this  short  selection  you 
may  find  the  general  topic,  or  heading,  to  be  something  like  this  :  My 
First  Experiences  in  Philadelphia.  Now  examine  the  first  group  of  sen- 
tences and  see  whether  its  topic  might  not  be  put  thus  :  My  Condition 
on  Reaching  Philadelphia.  Then  examine  the  sentences  of  the  second 
group  and  see  whether  all  will  not  come  under  this  heading  :  How  I 
Found  Something  to  Eat.  You  see  that  even  a  short  composition  like 
this  has  a  general  topic  with  topics  under  it.  As  sui  means  under, 
we  will  call  these  under  topics  sub-topics.  There  are  two  groups  of 
sentences  in  this  selection   because  there  are  two  distinct  sub-topics 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  159 


developed.      The  sentences  of  each  group  stand  together  because  they 
jointly  develop  one  sub-topic. 

A  group  of  sentences  related  and  held  together  by  a  common  thought 
we  call  a  Paragraph.  How  is  the  paragraph  indicated  to  the  eye  ? 
What  help  is  it  to  the  reader  to  have  a  composition  paragraphed  ? 
What,  to  the  writer  to  know  that  he  must  write  in  paragraphs  ? 

The  Style  of  the  Author. — This  selection  is  mainly  Narrative. 
The  matter  is  somewhat  tame,  and  the  expression  is  commonplace. 
The  words  are  ordinary,  and  they  stand  in  their  usual  place.  Fig- 
ures of  speech  are  not  used.  Yet  the  piece  has  a  charm.  The 
thoughts  are  homely  ;  the  expression  is  in  perfect  keeping  ;  the  style 
is  clear,  simple,  direct,  and  natural.  The  closing  sentence  is  slightly 
humorous.  Benjamin  Franklin  trudging  along  the  street,  hugging  a 
great  roll  of  bread  under  each  arm,  and  eating  a  third  roll,  must  have 
been  a  laughable  sight. 

Have  you  ever  known  boys  and  girls  in  writing  school  compositions, 
or  reporters  in  writing  for  the  newspapers,  to  use  large  words  for  small 
ideas,  and  long,  high-sounding  phrases  and  sentences  for  plain,  simple 
thoughts  ?  Have  you  ever  seen  what  could  be  neatly  said  in  three  or 
four  lises  ** padded  out"  to  fill  a  page  of  composition  paper  or  a 
column  in  a  newspaper  ? 

When  Franklin  said,  "  My  pockets  were  stuffed  out  with  shirts  and 
stockings,"  he  said  a  homely  th^ng  in  a  homely  way  ;  that  is,  he  fitted 
the  language  to  the  thought.  To  fit  the  expression  to  the  thought  on 
every  occasion  is  the  perfection  of  style.  If  Franklin  had  been  a  weak, 
foolish  writer,  his  sentence  might  have  taken  this  form  : — 

' '  Not  having  been  previously  provided  with  a  satchel  or  other  recep- 
tacle for  my  personal  effects,  my  pockets,  which  were  employed  as  a 
substitute,  were  protruding  conspicuously  with  extra  underclothing." 

Compare  this  sentence  with  Franklin's  and  point  out  the  faults  you 
see  in  the  substitute.  Can  you  find  anything  in  the  meaning  of  pro- 
vided that  makes  previously  unnecessary  ?  Do  you  now  understand 
what  Jjowell  meant  when,  in  praise  of  Dryden,  he  said,  "  His  phrase 
is  always  a  short  cut  to  his  sense  "  ? 

To  THE  I'eacher.— What  is  here  taught  of  the  paragraph  and  of  style  will  proba- 
bly not  be  mastered  at  one  reading.  It  will  be  found  necessary  to  return  to  it  occasion- 
ally, and  to  refer  pupils  to  it  for  aid  in  their  composition  work. 


160  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Suggestions  for  Composition  Work. 

To  THB  Teachbb.— We  suggest  that  the  pupils  reproduce  from  memory  the  extract 
above,  and  that  other  Belections  of  narrative  be  found  in  the  Readers  or  elsewhere  and 
studied  as  above. 

The  pupUs  may  be  able  to  note  to  what  extent  the  narrative  follows  the  order  of 
time  and  to  what  extent  it  is  topical.  They  may  also  note  the  amount  of  description  it 
contains.  They  should,  so  far  as  possible,  find  the  topic  for  each  paragraph,  thus 
making  an  outline  for  a  composition  to  be  completed  from  reproduction. 

It  will  now  require  little  eflfort  to  write  simple  original  narratives  of  real  or  imagined, 
experiences. 

Exercises  on  the   Composition   of  the   Sentence   and  the 
Paragraph. 

from  c.  d.  Warner's  *'  my  summer  in  a  garden." 

1.  In  the  driest  days,  my  fountain  became  disabled  ;  the  pipe  was 
stopped  up.  2.  A  couple  of  plumbers,  with  the  implements  of  their 
craft,  came  out  to  view  the  situation.  3.  There  was  a  good  deal  of  dif- 
ference of  opinion  about  where  the  stoppage  was.  4.  I  found  the 
plumbers  perfectly  willing  to  sit  down  and  talk  about  it — talk  by  the 
hour.  5.  Some  of  their  guesses  and  remarks  were  exceedingly  ingen- 
ious ;  and  their  general  observations  on  other  subjects  were  excellent 
in  their  way,  and  could  hardly  have  been  better  if  they  had  been  made 
by  the  job.  6.  The  work  dragged  a  little — as  it  is  apt  to  do  by  the 
hour. 

1.  The  plumbers  had  occasion  to  make  me  several  visits.  2.  Some- 
times they  would  find,  upon  arrival,  that  they  had  forgotten  some  in- 
dispensable tool  ;  and  one  would  go  back  to  the  shop,  a  mile  and  a  half, 
after  it ;  and  his  comrade  would  await  his  return  with  the  most  exem- 
plary patience,  and  sit  down  and  talk — always  by  the  hour.  3.  I  do 
not  know  but  it  is  a  habit  to  have  something  wanted  at  the  shop.  4. 
They  seemed  to  me  very  good  workmen,  and  always  willing  to  stop, 
and  talk  about  the  job  or  anything  else,  when  I  went  near  them.  5. 
Nor  had  they  any  of  that  impetuous  hurry  that  is  said  to  be  the  bane 
of  our  American  civilization.  6.  To  their  credit  be  it  said  that  I 
never  observed  anything  of  it  in  them.  7.  They  can  afford  to  wait. 
8.  Two  of  them  will  sometimes  wait  nearly  half  a  day,  while  a  com- 
rade goes  for  a  tool.     9.  They  are  patient  and  philosophical.     10.  It 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  161 


is  a  great  pleasure  to  meet  such  men.     11.  One  only  wishes  there  was 
some  work  he  could  do  for  them  by  the  hour. 


The  Uses  of  Words  and  Groups  of  Words. — How  can  you  make 
the  last  part  of  1  express  more  directly  the  cause  of  becoming  disabled  ? 
Would  you  use  a  semicolon  to  separate  the  sentences  thus  joined,  or 
would  you  use  a  comma  ?  Give  a  reason  for  the  comma  after  days. 
Find  in  2  an  adverb  phrase  that  expresses  purpose.  Use  an  equivalent 
adjective  in  place  of  a  couple  of.  Explain  the  use  of  there  in  3.  What 
adjective  may  be  used  in  place  of  good  in  a  good  deal  ?  What  long 
complex  phrase  modifies  deal  ?  Put  what  after  the  preposition  ahout 
and  find  a  group  of  words  that  takes  the  place  of  a  noun.  Find  in  this 
group  a  subject  and  a  predicate.  Find  in  4  an  objective  complement. 
Find  a  compound  infinitive  phrase  and  tell  what  it  modifies.  Notice 
that  the  dash  helps  to  show  the  break  made  by  repeating  talk.  When 
5  is  divided  into  two  sentences,  what  word  is  dropped  ?  This,  then, 
must  be  the  word  that  connected  the  two  sentences.  Notice  that  the 
two  main  parts  of  5  are  separated  by  a  semicolon.  This  enables  the 
writer  to  show  that  the  two  main  divisions  of  5  are  more  widely  sepa- 
rated in  mpiining  than  are  the  parts  of  the  second  division  where  the 
comma  is  used.  Give  the  three  leading  predicate  verbs  in  5  and  their 
complements.  If  they  had  been  made  hy  the  job  is  joined  like  an 
adverb  to  what  verb?    What  is  the  predicate  of  this  modifying  group  ? 

The  infinitive  phrase  in  1,  paragraph  2,  modifies  what  ?  Is  me,  or 
visits,  the  object  complement  of  make  ?  Put  what  after  would  find  in 
2  and  get  the  object  complement.  Can  you  make  a  sentence  of  this 
group  ?  What  are  its  principal  parts  ?  Does  the  writer  make  an  un- 
expected turn  after  talk?  How  is  this  shown  to  the  eye  ?  Put  what 
after  do  know  in  3  and  find  the  object  complement.  Can  you  make  a 
sentence  of  this  object  complement  ?  What  phrase  can  you  put  in 
place  of  the  pronoun  it  without  changing  the  sense  ?  By  using  the 
word  it,  a  better  arrangement  can  be  made.  What  group  of  words  in 
5  is  used  like  an  adjective  to  modify  hurry  ?  Change  the  pronoun 
that  to  hurry  and  make  a  separate  sentence  of  this  group.  What 
word,  then,  must  have  made  an  adjective  of  this  sentence  and  joined  it 
to  hurry  f  What  is  the  object  complement  of  can  afford  in  7  ?  Sup- 
ply a  preposition  after  will  wait  in  8,  and  then  find  two  groups  of 
11 


162  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


words  that  tell  the  time  of  waiting.  Find  a  subject  and  a  predicate  in 
the  second  group.  What  explains  it  in  10  ?  Find  the  object  comple- 
ment of  wishes  in  11.  What  is  the  subject  of  was  ?  The  office  of 
there  9  After  work  supply  the  pronoun  that  and  tell  the  office  of  the 
group  it  introduces.  What  is  the  object  complement  of  could  do  f 
What  connects  this  group  to  work  ? 

The  Grouping  of  Sentences  into  Paragraphs. — There  are  two 
distinct  sets  of  sentences  in  this  selection — distinct  because  developing 
two  distinct  sub-topics.  Accordingly,  there  are  two  paragraphs.  Let 
us  take  for  the  general  topic  The  Visits  of  the  Plumbo'S.  Let  us  see 
whether  all  the  sentences  of  the  first  paragraph  will  not  come  under  the 
sub-topic  First  Visit,  and  those  of  the  second  under  the  sub-topic  Sub- 
sequent Visits.  The  sentences  of  each  paragraph  should  be  closely 
related  to  one  another  and  to  the  sub-topic.  They  should  stand  in 
their  proper  order.  Do  the  paragraphs  above  stand  such  tests  ?  If 
they  do,  they  possess  the  prime  quality  of  Unity. 

The  Author's  Style. — This  selection  we  may  call  Narrative,  though 
there  are  descriptive  touches  in  it.  It  is  a  story  of  what  ?  Is  the  story 
clearly  told  throughout  ?  If  not,  where  is  it  obscure  ?  Is  it  made 
interesting  and  entertaining  ?  Is  Mr.  Warner  here  giving  us  a  bit  of 
his  own  experience  ?  Or  do  you  think  he  is  drawing  upon  his  imagi- 
nation ?  Would  you  call  the  style  plain,  or  does  it  abound  with  meta- 
phors, similes,  or  other  figures  of  speech  ?  Are  the  sentences  generally 
long,  or  generally  short  ?  What  are  the  faults  or  foibles  of  these  real 
<tr  fancied  plumbers  ?  Does  the  author  speak  of  them  in  a  genial  and 
lenient  way  ?  or  is  he  hostile,  and  does  he  hold  up  their  foibles  to  scorn 
and  derision  ?  Does  he  make  us  laugh  with,  or  does  he  make  us  laugh 
at,  the  plumbers  ?  If  the  former,  the  style  is  humorous  ;  if  the  lat- 
ter, the  style  is  satirical  or  sarcastic.  Would  you  call  Mr.  Warner's 
quality  of  style  Humor  ?  or  that  form  of  wit  known  as  Satire  ?  Is 
our  author's  use  of  it  delicate  and  refined  ?  or  is  it  gross  and  coarse  ? 
Does  it  stop  short  of  making  its  object  grotesque,  or  not  ?  Can  you 
name  any  writers  whose  humor  or  satire  is  coarse  ? 

Suggestions  for  Composition  Work. 
To  THE  Teacher.— See  suggestions,  pages  159,  160. 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  163 


Exercises  on   the  Composition  of  the  Sentence   and  the 
Paragraph. 

FROM  BEECHER's  "  LECTURES  TO  YOUNG  MEN." 

1.  Indolence  inclines  a  man  to  rely  upon  others  and  not  upon  himself, 
to  eat  their  bread  and  not  his  own.  2.  His  carelessness  is  somebody's 
loss  ;  his  neglect  is  somebody's  downfall.  3.  If  he  borrows,  the  article 
remains  borrowed  ;  if  he  begs  and  gets,  it  is  as  the  letting  out  of 
waters — no  one  knows  where  it  will  stop.  4.  He  spoils  your  work,  dis- 
appoints your  expectations,  exhausts  your  patience,  eats  up  your  sub- 
stance, abuses  your  confidence,  and  hangs  a  dead  weight  upon  all  your 
plans  ;  and  the  very  best  thing  an  honest  man  can  do  with  a  lazy  man 
is  to  get  rid  of  him. 

1.  Indolence  promises  without  redeeming  the  pledge  ;  a  mist  of 
forgetfulness  rises  up  and  obscures  the  memory  of  vows  and  oaths.  2. 
The  negligence  of  laziness  breeds  more  falsehoods  than  the  cunning 
of  the  sharper.  3.  As  pov^erty  waits  upon  the  steps  of  indolence,  so 
upon  such  poverty  brood  equivocations,  subterfuges,  lying  denials.  4. 
Falsehood  becomes  the  instrument  of  every  plan.  5.  Negligence  of 
truth,  next  occasional  falsehood,  then  wanton  mendacity — these  three 
strides  traverse  the  whole  road  of  lies. 

1.  Indolence  as  surely  runs  to  dishonesty  as  to  lying.  2.  Indeed, 
they  are  but  different  parts  of  the  same  road,  and  not  far  apart.  3.  In 
directing  the  conduct  of  the  Ephesian  converts,  Paul  says,  *'  Let  him 
that  stole  steal  no  more  ;  but  rather  let  him  labor,  working  with  his 
hands  the  thing  which  is  good."  4.  The  men  who  were  thieves  were 
those  who  had  ceased  to  work.  5.  Industry  was  the  road  back  to  hon- 
esty.    6.   When  stores  are  broken  open,  the  idle  are  first  suspected. 

The  Uses  of  Words  and  Groups  of  "Words.— Find  in  1  two 
compound  infinitive  phrases  and  tell  their  use.  Supply  the  words 
omitted  from  the  last  part  of  each  compound.  What  shows  that  the 
parts  of  2  are  not  closely  connected  ?  Would  a  conjunction  bring 
them  more  closely  together  ?  If  a  conjunction  is  used,  would  you 
change  the  punctuation  ?  A  sentence  that  unites  with  another  to 
make  one  greater  sentence  we  call  a  clause.  Read  the  first  part  of 
2  and  change  somebody's  first  to  a  phrase  and  then  to  a  clause  used 
like  an  adjective.     What  distinction  can  you  make  between  the  use  of 


164  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


i,he  semicolon  and  the  use  of  the  comma  in  3  ?  The  clause  if  he  bor- 
rows is  joined  like  an  adverb  to  what  verb  1  If  he  begs  and  gets  ? 
What  pronoun  more  indefinite  than  your  might  take  its  place  in  4  ? 
"What  noun  ?  Explain  the  use  of  the  semicolon  and  the  comma  in  4. 
Supply  that  after  thing  and  tell  what  clause  is  here  used  like  an  adjec- 
tive. Find  the  office  of  that  by  placing  it  after  do.  Find  in  4  an 
infinitive  phrase  used  as  attribute  complement. 

Change  the  phrase  in  1,  paragraph  2,  to  a  clause.  Find  in  2  the 
omitted  predicate  of  the  clause  introduced  by  than.  Find  a  compound 
subject  in  3.  Are  negligence,  falsehood,  and  mendacity,  in  5,  used  as 
subjects  ?  Explain  their  use  and  punctuation.  (See  Remark,  Les- 
son 45.) 

In  3,  paragraph  3,  how  are  the  words  borrowed  from  Paul  marked  ? 
Change  the  quotation  from  Paul  so  as  to  give  his  thought  but  not  his 
exact  words.  Are  the  quotation  marks  now  needed  ?  In  3  and  4  find 
clauses  introduced  by  that,  which,  and  who,  and  used  like  adjectives. 

The  Grouping  of  Sentences  into  Paragraphs. — Yoa  can  easily 
learn  the  sub-topic,  or  thought,  each  of  these  paragraphs  develops. 
See  whether  you  can  find  it  in  the  first  sentence  of  each.  Give  the 
three  sub-topics.  Put  together  the  three  thoughts  established  in  these 
paragraphs  and  tell  what  they  prove.  What  they  prove  is  that  for 
which  Mr.  Beecher  is  contending  ;  it  may  be  written  at  the  head  of  the 
extract  as  the  general  topic.  What  merits  of  the  paragraph,  already 
treated,  are  admirably  illustrated  in  this  extract  ? 

The  Style  of  the  Author. — This  selection  is  neither  descriptive 
nor  narrative  ;  it  is  Argumentative.  Mr.  Beecher  is  trying  to  estab- 
lish a  certain  proposition,  and  in  the  three  paragraphs  is  giving  three 
reasons,  or  arguments,  to  prove  its  truth.  But  the  argument  is  not 
all  thought,  is  not  purely  intellectual.  It  is  suffused  with  feeling,  is 
impassioned.  Mr.  Beecher's  heart  is  in  his  work.  This  feeling  warms 
and  colors  his  style,  and  stimulates  his  fancy.  As  a  consequence,  fig- 
ures of  speech  abound. 

Notice  that  in  1,  paragraph  1,  the  thought  is  repeated  by  means  of 
the  infinitive  phrases.  Read  the  words  Indolence  inclines  a  man  with 
each  of  the  four  infinitive  phrases  that  follow.  You  will  see  that  the 
thought  is  repeated.  It  is  first  expressed  in  a  general  way  ;  by  the  aid 
of  the  second  phrase  we  see  the  same  thought  from  the  negative  side  ; 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  165 


the  third  phrase  makes  the  statement  more  specific  ;  the  fourth  puts 
the  specific  statement  negatively.  The  needless  repetition  of  the  same 
thought  in  different  words  is  one  of  the  worst  faults  in  writing.  But 
Mr.  Beecher's  repetition  is  not  needless.  By  every  repetition  here,  Mr. 
Beecher  makes  his  thought  clearer  and  stronger.  Examine  the  other 
sentences  of  this  paragraph  and  see  whether  they  enforce  the  leading 
thought  by  illustration,  example,  or  consequence. 

In  what  sentence  is  the  style  made  energetic  by  the  aid  of  short 
predicates  ?  How  does  the  alternation  of  short  sentences  with  long 
throughout  the  extract  affect  you  ?  The  alternation  of  plain  with  fig- 
urative sentences  ?  Can  you  show  that  the  author's  style  has  Variety  ? 
Pick  out  the  metaphors  in  1,  2,  3,  and  5,  paragraph  2  ;  and  in  1  and  2, 
paragraph  3.  Pick  out  the  comparisons,  or  similes,  in  3,  paragraph  1, 
and  in  3,  paragraph  2.  Figures  of  speech  should  add  clearness  and 
force.  If  you  think  these  do,  tell  how.  Indolence  in  1  and  3,  para- 
graph 2,  and  laziness  in  2,  introduce  us  to  another  figure.  Something 
belonging  to  the  men,  a  quality,  is  made  to  represent  the  men  them- 
selves.    Such  a  figure  is  called  Metonymy. 

Suggestions  for  Composition  Work. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Exercises  in  argumentative  writing  may  be  continued  by  mak. 
ing  selections  from  the  discussion  of  easy  topics. 

For  original  work  we  suggest  debates  on  current  topics.  Compositions  should  be 
short. 

Exercises  on  the   Composition    of  the    Sentence  and   the 
Paragraph. 

EXTRACT    FROM    DANIEL   WEBSTER. 

1.  The  assassin  enters,  through  the  window  already  prepared,  into  an 
unoccupied  apartment.  2.  With  noiseless  foot  he  paces  the  lonely 
hall,  half  lighted  by  the  moon  ;  he  winds  up  the  ascent  of  the  stairs 
and  reaches  the  door  of  the  chamber.  3.  Of  this  he  moves  the  lock,  by 
soft  and  continued  pressure,  till  it  turns  on  its  hinges  without  noise  ; 
and  he  enters,  and  beholds  his  victim  before  him. 

1.  The  face  of  the  innocent  sleeper  is  turned  from  the  murderer,  and 
the  beams  of  the  moon,  resting  on  the  gray  locks  of  his  aged  temple, 
show  him  where  to  strike.  2.  The  fatal  blow  is  given  !  and  the  victim 
passes,  without  a  struggle  or  a  motion,  from  the  repose  of  sleep  to  the 


166  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


repose  of  death.  3.  It  is  the  assassin's  purpose  to  make  sure  work  ; 
and  he  plies  the  dagger,  though  it  is  obvious  that  life  has  been  destroyed 
by  the  blow  of  the  bludgeon.  4.  He  even  raises  the  aged  arm  that  he 
may  not  fail  in  his  aim  at  the  heart,  and  places  it  again  over  the 
wounds  of  the  poniard.  5.  To  finish  the  picture,  he  explores  the  wrist 
for  the  pulse.  6.  He  feels  for  it,  and  ascertains  that  it  beats  no  longer. 
7.  It  is  accomplished.     8.  The  deed  is  done. 

1.  He  retreats,  retraces  his  steps  to  the  window,  passes  out  through 
it  as  he  came  in,  and  escapes.  2.  He  has  done  the  murder.  No  eye 
has  seen  him,  no  ear  has  heard  him.  3.  The  secret  is  his  own,  and  it 
is  safe. 

1.  Ah  !  gentlemen,  that  was  a  dreadful  mistake.  2.  Such  a  secret 
can  be  safe  nowhere.  3.  The  whole  creation  of  God  has  neither  nook 
nor  corner  where  the  guilty  can  bestow  it,  and  say  it  is  safe.  4.  Not 
to  speak  of  that  eye  which  pierces  through  all  disguises  and  beholds 
everything  as  in  the  splendor  of  noon,  such  secrets  of  guilt  are  never 
safe  from  detection  even  by  men.  5.  True  it  is,  generally  speaking, 
that  "Murder  will  out."  6.  True  it  is  that  Providence  hath  so 
ordained,  and  doth  so  govern  things,  that  those  who  break  the  great 
law  of  heaven  by  shedding  man's  blood  seldom  succeed  in  avoiding  dis- 
covery. 

The  Uses  of  Words  and  Groups  of  Words. — Do  the  phrases  in 
1,  paragraph  1,  stand  in  their  usual  order,  or  are  they  transposed  ?  In 
what  different  places  may  they  stand  ?  Does  either  phrase  need  to  be 
transposed  for  emphasis  or  for  clearness  ?  Explain  the  punctuation. 
Begin  2  with  the  lonely  hall,  and  notice  that  the  sentence  is  thrown  out 
of  harmony  with  the  other  sentences,  and  that  the  assassin  is  for  the 
moment  lost  sight  of.  Can  you  tell  why  ?  Notice  that  in  the  latter 
part  of  2  the  door  is  mentioned,  and  that  3  begins  with  of  this,  refer- 
ring to  the  door.  Can  you  find  any  other  arrangement  by  which  3  will 
follow  2  so  naturally  ?  Can  you  change  3  so  as  to  make  the  reference 
of  it  clearer  ?  What  is  the  office  of  the  till  clause  ?  Does  the  clause 
following  the  semicolon  modify  anything  ?  Would  you  call  such  a 
clause  dependent,  or  would  you  call  it  independent?  Explain  the 
punctuation  of  3. 

Give  the  effect  of  changing  resting  in  1,  paragraph  2,  to  the  assertive 
form.     Find  in  1  a  pronoun  used  adverbially  and  a  phrase  used  as  ob- 


The  Sentence  and  the  Paragraph.  167 


Ject  complement.  Expand  the  phrase  into  a  clause.  Give  the  modi- 
fiers of  passes  in  2.  Read  the  first  part  of  3  and  put  the  explanatory 
phrase  in  place  of  it.  What  is  the  office  of  the  though  clause  ?  Find 
in  this  a  clause  doing  the  work  of  a  noun  and  tell  its  office.  In  4 
would  his  in  place  of  the  before  aged  and  before  heart  be  ambiguous  ? 
If  so,  why  ?  Find  in  this  paragraph  an  infinitive  phrase  used  inde- 
pendently. Find  the  object  complement  of  ascertains  in  6.  Are  7 
and  8  identical  in  meaning  ? 

Give  the  modifiers  oi  passes  in  paragraph  3.     Explain  the  as  clause. 

What  does  that  in  1,  paragraph  4,  stand  for  ?  What  kind  of  clause 
is  introduced  by  where  in  3  ?  By  which  in  4  ?  Expand  the  as  clause 
in  4  and  tell  its  oflBce.  Find  in  4  and  5  an  infinitive  phrase  and  a  par- 
ticiple phrase  used  independently.  Tell  the  office  of  the  that  clauses  in 
6  and  6,  and  of  the  who  clause  in  6. 

The  Grouping  of  Sentences  into  Paragraphs. — Look  (1)  at  the 
order  oi  the  sentences  in  each  paragraph,  and  (2)  at  the  order  of  the 
paragraphs  themselves.  Neither  order  could  be  changed  without  mak- 
ing the  stream  of  events  run  up  hill,  for  each  order  is  the  order  in 
which  the  events  happened.  Look  (3)  at  the  unity  of  each  paragraph, 
and  (4)  at  the  larger  unity  of  the  four  paragraphs — that  of  each  para- 
graph determined  by  the  relation  of  each  sentence  to  the  sub-topic  of 
the  paragraph,  and  that  of  the  four  paragraphs  determined  by  their 
relation  to  the  general  topic  of  the  extract.  We  add  that  the  obvious 
reference  of  the  repeated  he  to  the  same  person,  and  of  that  and  secret 
in  paragraph  4  demonstrates  both  unities.  Look  (5),  and  lastly,  at  the 
fact  that  the  sub-topic  of  each  paragraph  is  found  in  the  first  line  of 
each  paragraph.  Could  Webster  have  done  more  to  make  his  thought 
seen  and  felt  ? 

The  Style  of  the  Author. — This  selection  is  largely  Narrative. 
Its  leading  facts  were  doubtless  supplied  by  the  testimony  given  in  the 
case  ;  but  much  of  the  matter  must  have  come  from  the  imagination  of 
Mr.  Webster,  Everything  is  so  skillfully  and  vividly  put  that  the 
story,  touched  with  description,  has  all  the  effect  of  an  argument. 
One  quality  of  it  is  its  clearness,  its  perspicuity.  It  is  noticeable  also 
that  very  little  imagery  is  used,  that  the  language  is  plain  language. 
But  it  is  impossible  to  read  these  paragraphs  without  being  most  pro- 
foundly impressed  with  their  energy,  their  force. 


168  The  Sentence  and  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  style  is  forcible  because  (1)  the  subject-matter  is  easily 
grasped;  (2)  because  simple  words  are  used,  words  understood 
even  by  children  ;  because  (3)  these  words  are  specific  and  individ- 
ual, not  generic  ;  because  (4)  of  the  grateful  variety  of  sentences ; 
(5)  because  of  the  prevalence  of  short  sentences ;  because  (6)  of 
the  repetition  of  the  thought  in  successive  sentences  ;  because  (7), 
though  the  murder  took  place  some  time  before,  Webster  speaks  as  if 
it  were  now  taking  place  in  our  very  sight.  Find  proof  of  what  we 
have  just  said— proof  of  (2),  in  paragraphs  1  and  3  ;  proof  of  (3),  in 
sentences  3,  4,  and  5,  paragraph  3  ;  proof  of  (4),  throughout  ;  of  (5) 
and  (6),  in  paragraphs  3  and  4  ;  and  of  (7),  in  the  first  three  para- 
graphs. 

In  paragraph  3,  a  remarkable  sameness  prevails.  The  sentences  here 
are  framed  largely  on  one  plan.  They  are  mostly  of  the  same  length. 
The  order  of  the  words  in  them  is  the  same  ;  often  the  words  are  the 
same  ;  and,  even  when  they  are  not,  those  in  one  clause  or  sentence 
seem  to  suggest  those  in  the  next.  This  sameness  is  not  accidental. 
The  more  real  the  murderer's  fancied  security  is  made  in  this  para- 
graph to  appear,  the  more  startling  in  the  next  paragraph  will  be  the 
revelation  of  his  mistake.  Hence  no  novelty  in  the  words  or  in  their 
arrangement  is  allowed  to  distract  our  attention  from  the  dominant 
thought.  The  sentences  are  made  to  look  and  sound  alike  and  to  be 
alike  that  their  effect  may  be  cumulative.  The  principle  of  Parallel 
Construction,  the  principle  that  sentences  similar  in  thought  should 
be  similar  in  form,  is  here  allowed  free  play. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Do  not  be  discouraged  should  your  pupils  fail  to  grasp  at  first 
all  that  is  here  taught.  They  probably  will  not  fully  comprehend  it  till  they  bave 
returned  to  it  several  times.  It  will,  however,  be  impossible  for  them  to  study  it  with- 
out profit.  The  meaning  will  grow  upon  them.  In  studying  our  questions  and  sug- 
gestions the  pupils  should  have  the  "  Extract "  before  them,  and  should  try  to  verify  in 
it  all  that  is  taught  concerning  it. 


PARTS  OF  SPEECH  SUBDIVIDED. 


LESSON     85. 

CLASSES    OF    NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS. 

Introductory  Hints. — You  have  now  reached  a  point  where  it 
becomes  necessary  to  divide  the  eight  great  classes  of  words  into  sub- 
classes. 

You  have  learned  that  nouns  are  the  names  of  things  ;  as,  girl^ 
Sarah.  The  name  girl  is  held  in  common  by  all  girls,  and  hence  does 
not  distinguish  one  girl  from  another.  The  name  Sarah  is  not  thus 
held  in  common  ;  it  does  distinguish  one  girl  from  other  girls.  Any 
name  which  belongs  in  common  to  all  things  of  a  class  we  call  a 
Common  Noun ;  and  any  particular  name  of  an  individual,  distin- 
guishing this  individual  from  others  of  its  class,  we  call  a  Proper 
Noun.  The  *'  proper,  or  individual,  names"  which  in  Rule  1,  Lesson 
8,  you  were  told  to  begin  with  capital  letters  are  proper  nouns. 

Such  a  word  as  wheats  music,  or  architecture  does  not  distinguish 
one  thing  from  others  of  its  class  ;  there  is  but  one  thing  in  the  class 
denoted  by  each,  each  thing  forms  a  class  by  itself  ;  and  so  we  call 
these  words  common  nouns. 

In  Lesson  8  you  learned  that  pronouns  are  not  names,  but  words 
used  instead  of  names.  Any  one  speaking  of  himself  may  use  /,  my, 
etc.,  instead  of  his  own  name  ;  speaking  to  one,  he  may  use  you,  thou, 
your,  thy,  etc.,  instead  of  that  person's  name  ;  speaking  of  one,  he 
may  use  he,  she,  it,  him,  her,  etc.,  instead  of  that  one's  name.    These 


170  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


little  words  that  by  their  form  denote  the  speaker,  the  one  spoken  to, 
or  the  one  spoken  of  are  called  Personal  Pronouns. 

By  adding  self  to  my,  thy,  your,  Mm,  her,  and  it,  and  selves  to  our, 
your,  and  them,  we  form  what  are  called  Compound  Personal 
Pronouns,  used  either  for  emphasis  or  to  reflect  the  action  of  the 
verb  back  upon  the  actor  ;  as,  Xerxes  himself  was  the  last  to  cross 
the  Hellespont  ;  The  mind  cannot  see  itself. 

If  a  noun,  or  some  word  or  words  used  like  a  noun,  is  to  be  modi- 
fied by  a  clause,  the  clause  is  introduced  by  who,  ivhich,  what,  or 
that;  as,  I  know  the  man  that  did  that.  These  words,  relating  to 
words  in  another  clause,  and  binding  the  clauses  together,  are  called 
Relative  Pronouns.  By  adding  ever  and  soever  to  who,  which,  and 
what,  we  form  what  are  called  the  Compound  Relative  Pronouns 
whoever,  whosoever,  whichever,  whatever,  etc.,  used  in  a  general  way, 
and  without  any  word  expressed  to  which  they  relate. 

If  the  speaker  is  ignorant  of  the  name  of  a  person  or  a  thing  and 
asks  for  it,  he  uses  who,  which,  or  what ;  as,  Who  did  that  ?  These 
pronouns,  used  in  asking  questions,  are  called  Interrogative  Pro- 
nouns. 

Instead  of  naming  things  a  speaker  may  indicate  them  by  words 
pointing  them  out  as  near  or  remote  ;  as,  Is  that  a  man  ?  What  is 
this  9  or  by  words  telling  something  of  their  number,  order,  or  quan- 
tity ;  as.  None  are  perfect  ;  The  latter  will  do  ;  Much  has  been  done. 
Such  words  we  call  Adjective  Pronouns. 


DEFINITIONS. 
A  Noun*  is  the  name  of  anything*. 


*  Most  common  nouns  are  derived  from  roots  that  denote  qualities.  The  root  does 
not  necessarily  denote  the  most  essential  quality  of  the  thing,  only  its  most  obtrusive 
quality.  The  sky,  a  shower,  and  scum,  for  instance,  have  this  most  noticeable  feature  : 
they  are  a  cover,  they  hide,  conceal.    This  the  root  sku  signifies,  and  sku  is  the  main 


Classes  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns.  171 


A  Common  Noun  is  a  name  which  helougs  to  all  things 
of  a  class. 
A  Proper  Noun  is  the  particular  name  of  an  individual. 

Remark. — It  may  be  well  to  note  two  classes  of  common  nouns — 
collective  and  abstract  A  Collective  Noun  is  the  name  of  a  num- 
ber of  things  taken  together  ;  as,  army,  flock,  mob,  jury.  An  Ab- 
stract Noun  is  the  name  of  a  quality,  an  action,  a  being,  or  a  state  ; 
as,  whiteness,  beauty,  wisdom,  (the)  singing,  existence,  (the)  sleep. 

A  Pronoun  is  a  word  used  for  a  noun.* 

element  in  the  words  sTcy,  fihmoer  (Saxon  acUr),  and  scum  that  name  these  objects,  and 
in  the  adjective  obscure. 

A  noun  denoting  at  first  only  a  single  quality  of  its  object  comes  gradually,  by  the 
association  of  this  quality  with  the  rest,  to  denote  them  all. 

Herein  proper  nouns  differ  from  common.  However  derived,  as  Smith  is  from  the 
man's  office  of  smoothing,  or  White  from  his  color,  the  name  soon  ceases  to  denote 
quality,  and  becomes  really  meaningless. 

*  In  our  definition  and  general  treatment  of  the  pronoun,  we  have  conformed  to  the 
traditional  views  of  grammarians  ;  but  it  may  be  well  for  the  student  to  note  that  pro- 
nouns are  something  more  than  mere  substitutes  for  nouns,  and  that  their  primary 
function  is  not  to  prevent  the  repetition  of  nouns. 

1.  Pronouns  are  not  the  names  of  things.  They  do  not,  like  nouns,  lay  hold  of 
qualities  and  name  things  by  them.  They  seize  upon  relations  that  objects  sustain  to 
each  other  and  denote  the  objects  by  these  relations.  /,  you,  and  he  denote  their 
objects  by  the  relations  these  objects  sustain  to  the  act  of  speaking;  i denotes  the 
speaker  ;  you,  the  one  "spoken  to  ;  and  he  or  she  or  it,  the  one  spoken  of.  This  and 
tJiat  denote  their  objects  by  the  relative  distance  of  these  from  the  speaker  ;  some  and 
/(?w  and  others  indicate  parts  separated  from  the  rest.  Gestures  could  express  all  that 
many  pronouns  express. 

2.  It  follows  that  pronouns  are  more  general  than  nouiiB.  Any  person,  or  even  an 
animal  or  a  thing  personified,  may  use  /when  referring  to  himself,  you  when  referring 
to  the  one  addressed,  and  he,  she,  it,  and  they  when  referring  to  the  person  or  persons, 
the  thing  or  things,  spoken  of— and  all  creatures  and  things,  except  the  speaker  and 
the  one  spoken  to,  fall  into  the  last  list.  Some  pronouns  are  so  general,  and  hence  so 
vague,  in  their  denotement  that  they  show  the  speaker's  complete  ignorance  of  the 


172  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


A  Personal  Proiioun  is  a  pronoun  that  by  its  form  de- 
notes the  speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of. 

A  Relative  Pronoun  is  one  that  relates  to  some  preceding 
word  or  words  and  connects  clauses. 

An  Interrogative  Pronoun  is  one  with  which  a  question 
is  asked. 

An  Adjective  Pronoun  is  one  that  performs  the  offices  of 
both  an  adjective  and  a  noun. 

The  simple  personal  pronouns  are  : — 
I,  thou,  you,  he,  she,  and  it. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  : — 
Myself,  thyself,  yourself,  himself,  herself,  and  itself. 

The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  : — 
Who,  which,  that,  and  what.* 

objects  they  denote.  In,  Who  did  it  ?  Which  of  them  did  you  see  ?  the  questioner  is 
trying  to  find  out  the  one  for  whom  Who  stands,  and  the  person  or  thing  that  Which 
denotes.    To  what  does  it  refer  in.  It  rains  ;  How  is  it  with  you  ? 

3.  Some  pronouns  stand  for  a  phrase,  a  clause,  or  a  sentence,  going  before  or  coming 
after.  To  be  or  not  to  be— that  is  the  question.  It  is  doubtful  whether  the  Nwth  Pole 
vnU  ever  be  reached.  The  sails  turned,  the  corn  was  ground,  after  which  the  wind 
ceased.  Ought  you  to  go  f  I  cannot  answer  that.  In  the  first  of  these  sentences,  that 
stands  for  a  phrase  ;  in  the  last,  for  a  sentence.  It  and  which  in  the  second  and  third 
sentences  stand  for  clauses. 

4.  Which,  retaining  its  office  as  connective,  may  as  an  adjective  accompany  its 
noun  ;  as,  I  craved  his  forbearance  a  little  longer,  which  forbearance  he  allowed  me. 

*  As,  in  such  sentences  as  this  :  Give  such  things  as  you  can  spare,  may  be  treated  as 
a  relative  pronoun.  But  by  expanding  the  sentence  as  is  seen  to  be  a  conjunctive 
adverb — Give  such  things  as  those  are  which  you  can  spare. 

But  used  after  a  negative  is  sometimes  called  a  "  negative  relative  "  =  that  not ;  as, 
There  is  not  a  man  here  but  would  die  for  such  a  cause.  When  the  sentence  is 
expanded,  but  is  found  to  be  a  preposition— There  is  not  a  man  here  but  (=  except)  the 
one  who  would  die,  etc. 


Classes  of  Nouns  and  Pronouns.  173 


The  compound  relative  pronouns  are  : — 
Whoever  or  whosoever,  whichever  or  whichsoever,  whatever  or  what- 
soever. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  are : — 
WJio,  which,  and  what. 

Some  of  the  more  common  adjective  pronouns  are  : — 
All,  another,  any,  both,  each,  either,  enough,  few,  former,  latter, 

little,   many,  much,  neither,  none,   one,   other,   same,  several,   such, 

that,  these,  this,  those,  whole,  etc.* 

The  word,  phrase,  or  clause  in  the  place  of  which  a 
pronoun  is  used  is  called  an  Antecedent. 

Dipection. — Point  out  the  pronouns  and  their  antecedents  in  these 
sentences : — 

Jack  was  rude  to  Tom,  and  always  knocked  off  his  hat  when  he  met 
him.  To  lie  is  cowardly,  and  every  boy  should  know  it.  Daniel  and 
his  companions  were  fed  on  pulse,  which  was  to  their  advantage.  To 
lie  is  to  be  a  coward,  which  one  should  scorn  to  be.  To  sleep  soundly, 
which  is  a  blessing,  is  to  repair  and  renew  the  body. 

Remark. — When  the  interrogatives  who,  which,  and  what  intro- 
duce indirect  questions,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  them  from 

*  The  adjective  pronouns  this,  that,  these.,  and  those  are  called  Demonstrative 
pronoane.  All,  any,  both,  each,  either,  many,  one,  other,  etc.  are  called  Indefinite 
pronouns  because  they  do  not  point  out  and  particularize  like  the  demonstratives. 
Eo/Ch,  either,  and  neither  are  aiso  called  Distributives. 

But  for  the  fact  that  such  words  as  brave,  good,  etc.  in  the  phrases  the  brave,  the 
good,  etc.  describe — which  pronouns  never  do— we  might  call  them  adjective  pro- 
nouns. They  may  be  treated  as  nouns,  or  as  adjectives  modifying  nouns  to  be 
supplied. 

Some  adjectives  preceded  by  the  are  abstract  nouns ;  as,  the  grand,  the  suMime,  the 
beautiful. 


174  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


relatives  whose  antecedents  are  omitted.  For  example — I  found  who 
called  and  what  he  wanted  ;  I  saw  what  was  done.  The  first  sen- 
tence does  not  mean,  I  found  the  person  who  called  and  the  thing 
that  he  wanted.  "  Who  called"  and  ''what  he  wanted"  here  sug- 
gest questions — questions  referred  to  but  not  directly  asked.  I  saw 
what  was  done  =  I  saw  the  thing  that  was  done.  Ko  question  is 
suggested. 

It  should  be  remembered  that  which  and  what  may  also  be  inter- 
rogative adjectives  ;  as,  Which  side  won  ?     What  news  have  you  ? 

Direction. — Analyze  these  sentences,  and  parse  all  the  pronouns : — 
1.  Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash.  2.  I  myself  know  who  stole 
my  purse.  3.  They  knew  whose  house  was  robbed.  4.  He  heard 
what  was  said.  5.  You  have  guessed  which  belongs  to  me.  6.  Whom 
the  gods  would  destroy  they  first  make  mad.  7.  What  was  said,  and 
who  said  it  ?  8.  It  is  not  known  to  whom  the  honor  belongs.  9.  She 
saw  one  of  them,  but  she  cannot  positively  tell  which.  10.  Whatever 
is  done  must  be  done  quickly. 


LESSON    86. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PRONOUNS. 

To  THE  Teacher.— In  the  recitation  of  all  Lessons  containing  errors  for  correc- 
tion, the  pupils'  books  should  be  closed,  and  the  examples  should  be  read  by  you. 
To  insure  care  in  preparation,  and  close  attention  in  the  class,  read  some  of  the 
examples  in  their  correct  form.    Require  specific  reasons. 

Caution. — Avoid  he,  it,  they,  or  any  other  pronoun 
when  its  reference  Jto  an  antecedent  would  not  be  clear. 
Repeat  the  noun  instead,  quote  the  speaker's  exact  words, 
or  recast  the  sentence. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  relieve  these  sentences  of  their 
ambiguity : — 


Construction  of  Pronouns.  175 


Model. — The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father  ;  for,  if  he  should  leave 
him,  he  would  die  =  The  lad  cannot  leave  his  father  ;  for,  if  he  should 
leave  his  father,  his  father  would  die.  Lysias  promised  .his  father 
never  to  abandon  his  friends  =  Lysias  gave  his  father  this  promise  : 
"  I  will  never  abandon  your  (or  my)  friends." 

1.  Dr.  Prideaux  says  that,  when  he  took  his  commentary  to  the 
bookseller,  he  told  him  it  was  a  dry  subject.  2.  He  said  to  his  friend 
that,  if  he  did  not  feel  better  soon,  he  thought  he  had  better  go  home. 

(This  sentence  may  have  four  meanings.  Give  them  all,  using  what 
you  may  suppose  were  the  speakers  words.) 

3.  A  tried  to  see  B  in  the  crowd,  but  could  not  because  he  was  so 
short.  4.  Charles's  duplicity  was  fully  made  known  to  Cromwell  by 
a  letter  of  his  to  his  wife,  which  he  intercepted.  5.  The  farmer  told 
the  lawyer  that  his  bull  had  gored  his  ox,  and  that  it  was  but  fair  that 
he  should  pay  him  for  his  loss. 

Caution. — Do  not  use  pronouns  needlessly. 
Direction. —  Write  these  sentences,  omitting  needless  pronouns : — 
1.  It  isn't  true  what  he  said.  2.  The  father  he  died,  the  mother 
she  followed,  and  the  children  they  were  taken  sick.  3.  The  cat  it 
mewed,  and  the  dogs  they  barked,  and  the  man  he  shouted.  4.  Let 
every  one  turn  from  his  or  her  evil  ways.  5.  Napoleon,  Waterloo 
having  been  lost,  he  gave  himself  up  to  the  English. 

Caution. — In  addressing  a  person,  do  not,  in  the  same 
sentence,  use  the  two  styles  of  the  pronoun. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 

1.  Thou  art  sad,  have  you  heard  bad  news  ?    2.  You  cannot  always 

have  thy  way.    3.  Bestow  thou  upon  us  your  blessing.     4.  Love  thyself 

last,  and  others  will  love  you. 

Caution. — The   pronoun   them  should  not  be  used  for 


176  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


the  adjective  those,  nor  the  pronoun  what  for  the  con- 
junction that,* 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
1.  Hand  me  them  things.     2.  Who  knows  but  what  we  may  fail  ? 
3.  I   cannot  believe   but  what  I  shall  see  them  men  again.     4.  We 
ought  to  have  a  great  regard  for  them  that  are  wise  and  good. 

Caution. — The  relative  who  should  always  represent 
persons ;  which,  brute  animals  and  inanimate  things ; 
that,  persons,  animals,  and  things ;  and  what,  things. 
The  antecedent  of  what  should  not  be  expressed. 

Direction.— -S^wi^^/  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 

1.  Those  which  say  so  are  mistaken.  2.  He  has  some  friends  which 
I  know.  3.  He  told  that  what  he  knew.  4.  The  dog  who  was  called 
Fido  went  mad.  5.  The  lion  whom  they  were  exhibiting  broke^  loose. 
6.  All  what  he  saw  he  described.  7.  The  horse  whom  Alexander  rode 
was  named  Bucephalus. 

Direction. —  Write  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in 
these  five  Cautions. 

*  What  properly  introduces  a  noun  clause  expressing  a  direct  or  an  indirect  ques- 
tion, but  a  declarative  noun  clause  is  introduced  by  the  conjunction  thai.  But  may  be 
placed  before  this  conjunction  to  give  a  negative  force  to  the  noun  clause. 

This  use  of  but  requires  careful  discrimination.  For  example—"  I  have  no  fear  that 
he  will  do  it "  ;  "  I  have  no  fear  Ind  that  he  will  do  it."  The  former  indicates  certainty 
that  he  will  not  do  it,  and  the  latter  certainty  that  he  will  do  it.  "  No  one  doubts  but 
that  he  will  do  it "  is  incorrect,  for  it  contains  three  negatives— no,  doubts.,  and  but. 
Two  negatives  may  be  used  to  affirm,  but  not  three.  The  intended  meaning  is,  "  No 
one  doubts  that  he  will  do  it,"  or  "  No  one  believes  but  that  he  will  do  it,"  or  "Every 
one  believes  that  he  will  do  it." 

But  what,  for  but  that  or  Imt,  is  also  incorrectly  used  to  connect  an  adverb  clause  ; 
as,  "  He  is  not  so  bad  but  what  he  might  be  worse."  For  this  office  of  but  or  but  that 
in  an  adverb  clause,  see  Lesson  109,  fourth  "Example  "  of  the  uses  of  but. 


Construction  of  Pronouns— Continued.  177 


LESSON    87. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PRONOUNS-CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Several  connected  relative  clauses  relating  to 
the  same  antecedent  require  the  same  relative  pronoun. 
Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors: — 

1.  It  was  Joseph  that  was  sold  into  Egypt,  who  became  governor  of 
the  land,  and  which  saved  his  father  and  brothers  from  famine.  3. 
He  who  lives,  that  moves,  and  who  has  his  being  in  God  should  not 
forget  him.  3.  This  is  the  horse  which  started  first,  and  that  reached 
the  stand  last.  4.  The  man  that  fell  overboard,  and  who  was  drowned 
was  the  first  mate. 

Caution. — When  the  relative  clause  is  not  restrictive,* 
who  or  which,  and  not  that,  is  generally  used. 

Example. — Water,  which  is  composed  of  hydrogen  and  oxygen, 
covers  three-fourths  of  the  earth's  surface. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 

1.  The  earth  is  enveloped  by  an  ocean  of  air,  that  is  a  compound  ot 
oxygen  and  nitrogen.  2,  Longfellow,  that  is  the  most  popular 
American  poet,  has  written  beautiful  prose.  8.  Time,  that  is  a  pre- 
cious gift,  should  not  be  wasted.  4.  Man,  that  is  born  of  woman,  is 
of  few  days  and  full  of  trouble. 

Caution. — The  relative  that  f  should  be  used  instead  of 

*  See  Lesson  61. 

t  That  is  almost  always  restrictive.  However  desirable  it  may  seem  to  confine  who 
and  which  to  unrestrictive  clauses,  they  are  not  confined  to  them  in  actual  practice. 

The  wide  use  of  who  and  which  in  restrictive  clauses  is  not  accounted  for  by  saying 
that  they  occur  after  this,  these,  those,  and  that,  and  hence  are  used  to  avoid  disagree- 
12 


178  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


wlio  or  ivliich  (1)  when  the  antecedent  names  both  persons 
and  things;  (2)  when  that  would  prevent  ambiguity;  and  (3) 
when  it  would  sound  better  than  tvho  or  which,  e.  g.,  after 
thaty  same,  very,  all,  the  interrogative  ivho,  the  indefinite 
it,  and  adjectives  expressing  quality  in  the  highest  degree. 
Example. — He  lived  near  a  pond  that  was  a  nuisance.  {That 
relates  to  pond — the  pond  was  a  nuisance.  Which  might  have,  for  its 
antecedent,  pond,  or  the  whole  clause  He  lived  near  a  pond  ;  and  so  its 
use  here  would  be  ambiguous.) 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors  : — 
1.  The  wisest  men  who  ever  lived  made  mistakes.  2.  The  chief 
material  which  is  used  now  in  building  is  brick.  3.  Who  who  saw 
him  did  not  pity  him  ?  4.  He  is  the  very  man  whom  we  want.  5. 
He  is  the  same  who  he  has  ever  been.  6.  He  sent  his  boy  to  a  school 
which  did  him  good.  7.  All  who  knew  him  respected  him.  8.  It  was 
not  I  who  did  it.     9.  That  man  that  you  just  met  is  my  friend,    f 

Caution. — The  relative  clause  should  be  placed  as  near 
as  possible  to  the  word  which  it  modifies. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  The  pupil  will  receive  a  reward  from  his  teacher  who  is  diligent, 
2.  Her  hair  hung  in  ringlets,  which  was  dark  and  glossy.  3.  A  dog 
was  found  in  the'  street  that  wore  a  brass  collar.  4.  A  purse  was 
picked  up  by  a  boy  that  was  made  of  leather.  5.  Claudius  was  can- 
onized among  the  gods,  who  scarcely  deserved  the  name  of  man.  6. 
He  should  not  keep  a  horse  that  cannot  ride. 

able  repetitions  of  sounds.  This  may  frequently  be  the  reason  for  employing  who  and 
which  in  restrictive  clauses  ;  but  usage  authorizes  us  to  affirm  (1)  that  who  and  which 
stand  in  such  clauses  oftener  without,  than  with,  this,  these,  those,  or  that  preceding 
them,  and  (2)  that  they  so  stand  oftener  than  that  itself  does.  Especially  may  this  be 
paid  of  which. 


Construction  of  Pronouns— Continued.  179 


Caution. — W4ien  this  and  that,  these  and  those,  the  one 
and  tlie  other  refer  to  things  previously  mentioned,  this 
and  these  refer  to  the  last  mentioned,  and  that  and  those  to 
the  first  mentioned  ;  the  one  refers  to  the  first  mentioned, 
and  the  other  to  the  last  mentioned.  When  there  is  danger 
of  obscurity,  repeat  the  nouns. 

Examples. — High  and  tall  are  synonyms  :  this  may  be  used  in 
speaking  of  what  grows — a  tree  ;  that,  in  speaking  of  what  does  not 
grow — a  mountain.  Homer  was  a  genius  ;  Virgil,  an  artist  :  in  the 
one  we  most  admire  the  man  ;  in  the  other,  the  work. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
1.  Talent  speaks  learnedly  at  the  bar  ;  tact,  triumphantly  :  this  is 
complimented  by  the  bench  ;  that  gets  the  fees.  2.  Charles  XII.  and 
Peter  the  Great  were  sovereigns  :  the  one  was  loved  by  his  people  ; 
the  other  was  hated.  3.  The  selfish  and  the  benevolent  are  found  in 
every  community  ;  these  are  shunned,  while  those  are  sought  after. 

Direction. —  Write  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in 
these  five  Cautions. 


LESSON    88. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PRONOUNS-CONTINUED. 

Miscellaneous    Errors. 

Direction. — Oive  the  Cautions  which  these  sentences  violate,  and 
correct  the  errors  : — 

1.  He  who  does  all  which  he  can  does  enough.  2.  John's  father 
died  before  he  was  born.  3.  Whales  are  the  largest  animals  which 
swim.  4.  Boys  who  study  hard,  and  that  study  wisely  make  progress. 
5,  There  are  miners  that  live  below  ground,  and  who  seldom  see  the 


180  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


light.  6.  He  did  that  what  was  right.  7.  General  Lee,  that  served 
under  Washington,  had  been  a  British  ofRcer.  8.  A  man  should  sit 
down  and  count  the  cost  who  is  about  to  build  a  house.  9.  They  need 
no  spectacles  that  are  blind.  10.  They  buy  no  books  who  are  not  able 
to  read.  11.  Cotton,  that  is  a  plant,  is  woven  into  cloth.  12.  Do 
you  know  that  gentleman  that  is  speaking  ?  13.  There  is  no  book 
which,  when  we  look  through  it  sharply,  we  cannot  find  mistakes  in 
it.  14.  The  reporter  which  said  that  was  deceived.  15.  The  diamond, 
that  is  pure  carbon,  is  a  brilliant  gem.  16.  The  brakemen  and  the 
cattle  which  were  on  the  train  were  killed.  17.  Reputation  and  char- 
acter do  not  mean  the  same  thing  :  the  one  denotes  what  we  are  ;  the 
other,  what  we  are  thought  to  be.  18.  Kosciusko  having  come  to 
this  country,  he  aided  us  in  our  Revolutionary  struggle.  19.  What 
pleased  me  much,  and  which  was  spoken  of  by  others,  was  the  general 
appearance  of  the  class.  20.  There  are  many  boys  whose  fathers  and 
mothers  died  when  they  were  infants.  21.  Witness  said  that  his  wife's 
father  came  to  his  house,  and  he  ordered  him  out,  but  he  refused  to 
go.  22.  Shall  you  be  able  to  sell  them  boots  ?  23.  I  don't  know  but 
what  I  may.  24.  Beer  and  wine  are  favorite  drinks  abroad  :  the  one 
is  made  from  grapes;  the  other,  from  barley.  25.  There  is  one  marked 
difference  between  shiners  and  trout  ;  these  have  scales,  and  thoi-e 
have  not.  26.  They  know  little  of  men,  who  reason  thus.  27.  Help 
thyself,  and  Heaven  will  help  you. 


LESSON    89. 

CLASSES    OF    ADJECTIVES. 

Introductory  Hints. — You  learned  in  Lesson  12  that,  in  tlie 
sentences  Ripe  apples  are  healthful,  Unripe  apples  are  hurtful,  the 
adjectives  ripe  and  unripe  limit,  or  narrow,  the  application  of  apples 
by  describing,  or  by  expressing  certain  qualities  of  the  fruit.     You 


Classes  of  Adjectives.  181 


learned  also  that  the,  this,  an,  no,  some,  and  many  limit,  or  narrow, 
the  application  of  any  noun  which  they  modify,  as  apple  or  apples, 
by  pointing  out  the  particular  fruit,  by  numbering  it,  or  by  denoting 
the  quantity  of  it. 

Adjectives  which  limit  by  expressing  quality  are  called  Descriptive 
Adjectives;  and  those  which  limit  by  pointing  out,  numbering,  or 
denoting  quantity  are  called  Definitive  Adjectives. 

Adjectives  modifying  a  noun  do  not  limit,  or  narrow,  its  applica- 
tion (1)  when  they  denote  qualities  that  always  belong  to  the  thing 
named  ;  as,  yellow  gold,  the  good  God,  the  hlue  sky  ;  or  (3)  when  they 
are  attribute  complements,  denoting  qualities  asserted  by  the  verb  ; 
as.  The  fields  were  green  ;  The  ground  was  dry  and  hard. 


DEFINITIONS. 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  noun  or  a  pro- 
noun.* 

A  Descriptive  Adjective  is  one  tliat  modifies  by  expressing 
quality. 

A  Definitive  Adjective  is  one  that  modifies  by  pointing^ 
out,  numbering,  or  denoting  quantity.! 

The  definitive  adjectives  an  or  a  and  the  are  commonly 
called  Articles.  An  or  a  is  called  the  Indefinite  Article, 
and  the  is  called  the  Definite  Article. 

A  noun  may  take  the  place  of  an  adjective. 

*  Pronouns,  like  nouns,  are  often  modified  by  an  "appositive"  adjective,  that  is,  an 
adjective  joined  loosely  without  restricting  :  thus— i^arn^  and  weary,  he  struggled  on, 
or,  He^  faint  and  xoeary,  struggled  on.  Adjectives  that  complete  the  predicate  belong 
as  freely  to  pronouns  as  to  nouns. 

t  The  definitive  adjectives  one,  two,  three,  etc. ;  first,  second,  third,  etc.  are  called 
Numeral  adjectives.  One,  two,  three,  etc.  are  called  Cardinal  numerals ;  and 
first,  second,  third,  etc.  are  called  Ordinal  numerals. 


182  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


Examples. — London  journals,  the  New  York  press,  silver  spoons, 
diamond  pin,  state  papers,  gold  bracelet. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  descriptive  and  the  definitive  adjectives 
below,  and  name  such  as  do  not  limit: — 

Able  statesmen,  much  rain,  ten  mice,  brass  kettle,  small  grains. 
Mansard  roof,  some  feeling,  all  men,  hundredth  anniversary,  the  Pitt 
diamond,  the  patient  Hannibal,  little  thread,  crushing  argument, 
moving  spectacle,  the  martyr  president,  tin  pans,  few  people,  less 
trouble,  this  toy,  any  book,  brave  Washington,  Washington  market, 
three  cats,  slender  cord,  that  libel,  happy  children,  the  broad  Atlan- 
tic, The  huge  clouds  were  dark  and  threatening,  Eyes  are  bright. 
What  name  was  given  ?    Which  book  is  wanted  ? 

Direction. — Point  out  the  descriptive  and  the  definitive  adjectives 
in  Lessons  80  and  81,  and  tell  whether  they  denote  color,  motion, 
shape,  position,  size,  moral  qualities,  or  whether  they  mod- 
ify in  some  other  way. 


LESSON     90. 

CONSTRUCTION     OF    ADJECTIVES. 

Caution. — An  and  a  are  different  forms  of  07ie.  An  is 
used  before  vowel  sounds.  For  the  sake  of  euphony,  an 
drops  n  and  becomes  a  before  consonant  sounds.* 

Examples. — An  inkstand,  a  bag,  a  historian,  a  humble  petition, 
an  hour  Qi  is  silent),  a  unit  (^nit  begins  with  the  consonant  sound 
of  y),  such  a  one  {one  begins  with  the  consonant  sound  of  w). 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors: — 

*  Some  writers  still  use  an  before  words  beginning  with  unaccented  h ;  as,  an 
historian. 


Construction  of  Adjectives.  183 


A  heir,  a  inheritance,  an  hook,  an  ewer,  an  usurper,  a  account,  an 
uniform,  an  hundred,  a  umpire,  an  hard  apple,  an  hero. 

Caution. — An  or  a  is  used  to  limit  a  noun  to  one  thing 
of  a  class — to  any  one.  The  is  used  to  distinguish  (1)  one 
thing  or  several  things  from  others,  and  (2)  one  class  of 
things  from  other  classes. 

Explanation. — We  can  say  a  horse,  meaning  any  one  horse  ;  but 
we  cannot  say,  A  gold  is  heavy.  This  is  a  poor  kind  of  a  gas,  William 
Pitt  received  the  title  of  an  earl,  because  gold,  gas,  and  earl  are  here 
meant  to  denote  each  the  whole  of  a  class,  and  a  limits  its  noun  to  one 
thing  .)f  a  class. 

I'he  horse  or  the  horses  must  be  turned  into  the  lot.  Here  the  before 
horse  distinguishes  a  certain  animal,  and  the  before  horses  distin- 
guishes certain  animals,  from  others  of  the  same  class  ;  and  the 
before  lot  distinguishes  the  field  from  the  yard  or  the  stable — things 
in  other  classes.  The  horse  is  a  noble  animal.  Here  the  distinguishes 
this  class  of  animals  from  other  classes.  But  we  cannot  say.  The  man 
(meaning  the  race)  is  mortal,  Ti^e  anger  is  a  short  madness.  The  truth 
is  eternal,  The  poetry  and  the  painting  are  fine  arts,  because  wan, 
anger,  truth,  poetry,  and  painting  are  used  in  their  widest  sense,  and 
name  things  that  are  sufficiently  distinguished  without  the. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  as  explained,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  This  is  another  kind  of  a  sentence.  2.  Churchill  received  the 
title  of  a  duke.  3.  A  hill  is  from  the  same  root  as  column,  4.  Dog  is 
a  quadruped.  5.  I  expected  some  such  an  offer.  6.  The  woman  is 
the  equal  of  man.  7.  The  sculpture  is  a  fine  art.  8.  Unicorn  is  kind 
of  a  rhinoceros.     9.  Oak  is  harder  than  the  maple. 

Caution. — Use  an,  a,  or  the  before  each  of  two  or  more 


184  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


connected  adjectives,  when  these  adjectives  modify  differ- 
ent nouns,  expressed  or  understood ;  but,  when  they  mod- 
ify the  same  noun,  the  article  should  not  be  repeated. 

Explanation. — A  cotton  and  a  silk  umbrella  means  two  umbrellas 
— one  cotton  and  the  other  silk  ;  the  word  umbrella  is  understood  after 
cotton.  A  cotton  and  silk  umbrella  means  one  umbrella  partly  cotton 
and  partly  silk  ;  cotton  and  silk  modify  the  same  noun — umbrella. 
The  wise  and  the  good  means  two  classes  ;  the  wise  and  good  means 
one  class. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  as  explained,  a.nd  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  The  Northern  and  Southern  Hemisphere.  3.  The  Northern  and 
the  Southern  Hemispheres.  3.  The  right  and  left  hand.  4.  A  Pull- 
man and  Wagner  sleeping-coach.  5.  The  fourth  and  the  fifth  verses. 
6.  The  fourth  and  fifth  verse.  7.  A  Webster's  and  Worcester's 
dictionary.  * 

Caution. — Use  an,  a,  or  the  before  each  of  two  or  more 
connected  nouns  denoting  things  that  are  to  be  distin- 
guished from  each  other  or  emphasized. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
1.  There  is  a  difference  between  the  sin  and  sinner.  2.  We  criti- 
cise not  the  dress  but  address  of  the  speaker.  3.  A  noun  and  pronoun 
are  alike  in  office.  4.  Distinguish  carefully  between  an  adjective  and 
adverb.  5.  The  lion,  as  well  as  tiger,  belongs  to  the  cat  tribe.  6. 
Neither  the  North  Pole  nor  South  Pole  has  yet  been  reached.  7. 
The  secretary  and  treasurer  were  both  absent.  {The  secretary  and 
treasurer  was  absent — referring  to  one  person — is  correct.) 

'  Caution. — A  few  and  a  little  mean  some  as  opposed  to 
none  ;  few  means  not  many,  and  little  means  not  much. 


Construction  of  Adjectives— Continued.  185 


Examples. — He  saved  a  few  things  and  a  little  money  from  the 
wreck.  Few  shall  part  where  many  meet.  Little  was  said  or  done 
about  it. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 

1.  There  are  a  few  pleasant  days  in  March,  because  it  is  a  stormy 
month.  2.  He  saved  a  little  from  the  fire,  as  it  broke  out  in  th& 
night.  3.  Few  men  live  to  be  a  hundred  years  old,  but  not  many; 
4.  Little  can  be  done,  but  not  much. 

Direction. —  Write  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in  these- 
Cautions. 


LESSON    91. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    ADJECTIVES-CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Choose  apt  adjectives,  but  do  not  use  tberti 
needlessly  ;  avoid  such  as  repeat  the  idea  or  exaggerate  it. 

Remark. — The  following  adjectives  are  obviously  needless  :  Qoodi- 
virtues,  verdant  green,  painful  toothache,  umbrageous  shade. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  carefully,  and  correct  these  errors: — 

1.  It  was  splendid  fun.  2.  It  was  a  tremendous  dew.  3.  He  used 
less  words  than  the  other  speaker.  4.  The  lad  was  neither  docile  nor 
teachable.  5.  The  belief  in  immortality  is  common  and  universal. 
6.  It  was  a  gorgeous  apple.  7.  The  arm-chair  was  roomy  and  capa- 
cious.    8.  It  was  a  lovely  bun,  but  I  paid  a  frightful  price  for  it. 

Caution. — So  place  adjectives  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  what  you  intend  them  to  modify.  If  those  forming- 
a  series  are  of  different  rank,  place  nearest  the  noun  the 
one  most  closely  modifying  it.     If  they  are  of  the   same 


186  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


rank,  place  them  where  they  will  sound  best — generally  in 
the  order  of  length,  the  shortest  first. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
1.  A  new  bottle  of  wine.  2.  The  house  was  comfortable  and  large. 
3.  A  salt  barrel  of  pork.  4.  It  was  a  blue  soft  beautiful  sky.  5.  A 
fried  dish  of  bacon.  6.  We  saw  in  the  distance  a  precipitous,  barren, 
towering  mountain.  7.  Two  gray  fiery  little  eyes.  8.  A  docile  and 
mild  pupil.     9.  A  pupil,  docile  and  mild. 

Direction. — Write  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in 
these  two  Cautions. 

Miscellaneous    Errors. 

Direction. — Give  the  Cautions  which  these  expressions  violate,  and 
correct  the  errors  : — 

1.  I  can  bear  the  heat  of  summer,  but  not  cold  of  winter.  2.  The 
North  and  South  Pole.  3.  The  eldest  son  of  a  duke  is  called  a  mar- 
quis. 4.  He  had  deceived  me,  and  so  I  had  a  little  faith  in  him.  5. 
An  old  and  young  man.  6.  A  prodigious  snowball  hit  my  cheek.  7. 
The  evil  is  intolerable  and  not  to  be  borne.  8.  The  fat,  two  lazy  men. 
^.  His  penmanship  is  fearful.  10.  A  white  and  red  flag  were  flying. 
11.  His  unusual,  unexpected,  and  extraordinary  success  surprised 
him.  12.  He  wanted  a  apple,  an  hard  apple.  13.  A  dried  box  of 
lierrings.  14.  He  received  a  honor.  15.  Such  an  use  !  16.  The  day 
was  delightful  and  warm.  17.  Samuel  Adams's  habits  were  unosten- 
tatious, frugal,  and  simple.  18.  The  victory  was  complete,  though  a 
few  of  the  enemy  were  killed  or  captured.  19.  The  truth  is  mighty 
^nd  will  prevail,  20.  The  scepter,  the  miter,  and  coronet  seem  to  me 
poor  things  for  great  men  to  contend  for.  21.  A  few  can  swim  across 
the  Straits  of  Dover,  for  the  width  is  great  and  the  current  strong, 
22.  I  have  a  contemptible  opinion  of  you.  23.  She  has  less  friends 
than  I. 


Classes  of  Verbs  and  Adverbs.  187 


LESSON    92. 

CLASSES    OF    VERBS    AND    ADVERBS. 

Introductory  Hints. — You  learned  in  Lesson  28  that  in  saying 
Washington  captured  we  do  not  fully  express  the  act  performed. 
Adding  Cornwallis,  we  complete  the  predicate  by  naming  the  one  that 
receives  the  act  that  passes  over  from  the  doer.  Transitive  means 
passing  over,  and  so  all  verbs  that  represent  an  act  as  passing  over 
from  a  doer  to  a  receiver  are  called  Transitive  Verbs.  If  we  say 
Cornwallis  was  captured  hy  Washington,  the  verb  is  still  transitive  ; 
but  the  object,  Cornwallis,  which  names  the  receiver,  is  here  the  sub- 
ject of  the  sentence,  and  not,  as  before,  the  object  complement.  You 
see  that  the  object,  the  word  that  names  the  receiver  of  the  act,  may 
be  the  subject,  or  it  may  be  the  object  complement. 

All  verbs  that,  like  fall  in  Leaves  fall,  do  not  represent  the  act 
as  passing  over  to  a  receiver,  and  all  that  express  mere  being  or  state 
of  being  are  called  Intransitive  Verbs. 

A  verb  transitive  in  one  sentence  ;  as.  He  writes  good  English,  may 
be  intransitive  in  another  ;  as,  He  tvrites  well — meaning  simply  He  is 
a  good  writer.  A  verb  is  transitive  only  when  an  object  is  expressed 
or  obviously  understood. 

Washington  captured  Cornwallis.  Here  captured  represents  the 
act  as  having  taken  place  in  past  time.  Tense  means  time,  and  hence 
this  verb  is  in  the  past  tense.  Cornwallis  captured,  the  war  speedily 
closed.  Here  captured  is,  as  you  have  learned,  a  participle  ;  and, 
representing  the  act  as  past  at  the  time  indicated  by  closed,  it  is  a 
past  participle.  Notice  that  ed  is  added  to  capture  (final  e  is  always 
dropped  when  ed  is  added)  to  form  its  past  tense  and  its  past  parti- 
ciple. All  verbs  that  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  by 
adding  ed  to  the  present  are  called  Reg^ular  Verbs. 

All  verbs  that  do  not  form  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle  by 


188  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


adding  ed  to  the  present ;  as,  fall,  fell,  fallen ;  go,  went,  gone,  are 
called  Irregular  Verbs. 


Early,  hereafter,  now,  often,  soon,  presently,  etc.,  used  to  modify- 
any  verb — as,  will  go  in,  I  will  go  soon — by  expressing  time,  are  called 
Adverbs  of  Time. 

Away,  back,  elsewhere,  hence,  out,  within,  etc.,  used  to  modify  any 
verb — as,  will  go  in,  I  will  go  away — by  expressing  direction  or  place, 
are  called  Adverbs  of  Place. 

'  Exceedingly,  hardly,  quite,  sufficiently,  too,  very,  etc.,  used  to  mod- 
ify a  word — as  the  adjective  hot  in,  The  tea  is  very  hot — by  expressing 
degree,  ;ire  called  Adverbs  of  Degree. 

Plainly,  so,  thus,  tvell,  not,*  etc.,  used  to  modify  a  word — as,  spoke 
in,  He  spoJce  plainly — by  expressing  manner,  are  called  Adverbs  of 
Manner. 

*  It  may  be  worth  remarking  that  while  there  are  many  negative  nouns,  pronouns, 
■verbs,  adjectives,  and  conjunctions  in  our  language,  negation  is  more  frequently  ex- 
pressed in  English  by  the  adverb  than  by  any  other  part  of  speech— than  by  all  other 
parts  of  speech.  A  very  large  per  cent  of  these  adverbs  modify  the  verb.  That  is  to 
eay,  it  is  largely  through  the  adverb  that  what  the  predicate  expresses  is  declared  not 
to  be  true  of  the  thing  named  by  the  subject.  It  is  very  suggestive  that  much  of  what 
•is  said  consists  of  denial— is  taken  up  in  telling  not  what  is  true  of  things  but  what  is 
not  true  of  them. 

"  The  negative  particle  in  our  language  is  simply  the  consonant  n.  In  Saxon  it 
existed  as  a  word  ne  ;  but  we  have  lost  that  word,  and  it  is  now  a  letter  only,  which 
enters  into  many  words,  as  into  no,  not,  nought,  none,  neither,  nor,  never."— Earle. 

No  and  yes  (nay  and  yea),  when  used  to  answer  questions,  show  how  the  thought 
presented  is  regarded,  and  may  therefore  be  classed  with  adverbs  of  manner.  They 
are  sometimes  called  independent  adverbs.  They  seem  to  modify  words  omitted  in 
the  answer  but  contained  in  the  question  ;  as,  Did  you  see  him  ?  JVo  =  I  did  no  (not) 
see  him  ;  Will  you  go  ?  Yes.  The  force  of  yes  may  be  illustrated  by  substituting 
certainly— Will  you  go  ?    Certainly  =  Certainly  I  will  go,  or  I  will  certainly  go. 

As  no  and  yes  represent  or  suggest  complete  answers,  they  may  be  called  sentence- 
frords. 


Classes  of  Verbs  and  Adverbs.  189 


Hence,  therefore,  why,  etc.,  used  in  making  an  inference  or  in  ex- 
pressing cause — as,  It  is  dark,  hence,  or  therefore,  the  sun  is  down  ; 
Why  is  it  dark  ? — are  called  Adverbs  of  Cause. 

Some  adverbs  fall  into  more  than  one  class  ;  as,  so  and  as. 

Some  adverbs,  as  you  have  learned,  connect  clauses,  and  are  there- 
fore called  Conjunctive  Adverbs. 


DEFINITIONS. 
A  Verb  is  a  word  that  asserts  action,  being*,  or  state  of  being*. 

CLASSES  OF  VERBS  WITH   RESPECT  TO  MEANING. 

A  Transitive  Verb  is  one  tliat  requires  an  object.* 
An  Intransitive   Verb  is  one  tliat  does  not  require  an 
object. 

CLASSES  OF  VERBS  WITH  RESPECT  TO  FORM. 

A  Regular  Verb  is  one  .that  forms  its  past  tense  and  past 
participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present. 

An  Irregular  Verb  is  one  that  does  not  form  its  past  tense 
and  past  participle  by  adding  ed  to  the  present. 


An  A  dverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  yerb,  an  adjectire, 
or  an  adverb.f 

*  The  object  of  a  transitive  verb,  tliat  is,  the  name  of  the  receiver  of  the  action, 
may  be  the  object  complement,  or  it  may  be  the  subject ;  as,  Brutus  stabbed 
Cotsar  ;  Coesar  was  stabbed  by  Brutus.    See  page  187. 

+  Adverbs  have  several  exceptional  uses.  They  may  be  used  independently ;  as. 
Now,  there  must  be  an  error  here.  They  may  modify  a  phrase  or  a  preposition ; 
as,  He  came  jmt  in  time  ;  It  went  far  beyond  the  mark.  They  may  modify  a  clause 
or  a  sentence  ;  as,  He  let  go  simply  because  he  was  exhausted  ;   Certainly  you  may  go. 

It  may  also  be  noted  here  that  adverbs  are  used  interrogatively  ;  as,  How,  when,  and 
where  is  this  to  be  done  ?  and  that  they  may  add  to  the  office  of  the  adverb  that  of 
ttie  conjanctlon ;  as,  I  go  where  I  am  sent. 


190  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


CLASSES   OF   ADVERBS. 

Adverbs  of  Time  are  those  that  generally  answer  the  ques- 
tion, When? 

Adverbs  of  Place  are  those  that  generally  answer  the 
question,  Where  9 

Adverbs  of  T>egree  are  those  that  generally  answer  the 
question.  To  what  extent  9 

Adverbs  of  Manner  are  those  that  generally  answer  the 
question.  In  what  way  9 

Adverbs  of  Cause  are  those  that  generally  answer  the 
question,  Why  9 

Direction. — Point  out  the  transitive  and  the  intransitive,  the  regu- 
lar and  the  irregular  verbs  in  Lesson  14,  and  classify  the  adverbs. 


LESSON    93. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    ADVERBS. 

Caution. — Choose  apt  adverbs,  but  do  not  use  them 
needlessly  or  instead  of  other  forms  of  expression ;  avoid 
such  as  repeat  the  idea  or  exaggerate  it. 

Examples. — I  could  ill  (not  illy)  afford  the  time.  Do  as  (not  like) 
I  do.  A  diphthong  is  the  union  of  two  vowels  (not  where  or  when 
two  vowels  unite)  in  the  same  syllable.  This  (not  this  here  or  this 
''ere)  sentence  is  correct.  He  wrote  that  (not  how  that)  he  had  been 
sick.  The  belief  in  immortality  is  universally  held  (not  universally 
held  everywhere).     His  nose  was  very  (not  terribly  or  frightfully)  red. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct  these 
errors  : — 

1.  I  returned  back  here  yesterday.     2.  He  had  not  hardly  a  minute 


Construction  of  Adverbs.  191 


to  spare.  3.  The  affair  was  settled  amicably,  peaceably,  and  peace- 
fully. 4.  It  was  awfully  amusing.  5.  This  'ere  knife  is  dull.  6.  That 
'ere  horse  has  the  heaves.  7.  A  direct  quotation  is  when  the  exact 
words  of  another  are  copied.  8.  I  do  not  like  too  much  sugar  in  my 
tea.  9.  He  seldom  or  ever  went  home  sober.  10.  The  belief  in 
immortality  is  universally  held  by  all.  11.  I  am  dreadfully  glad  to 
hear  that.  12.  This  is  a  fearfully  long  lesson.  13.  He  said  how  that 
he  would  go. 

Caution. — So  place  adverbs  that  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  what  you  intend  them  to  modify.  Have  regard  to 
the  sound  also.  They  seldom  stand  between  to  and  the 
infinitive.* 

Examples. — I  only  rowed  across  the  river  =  I  only  {=  alone,  an 
adjective),  and  no  one  else,  rowed  etc.,  or  =  I  only  rowed  etc.,  but 
did  not  sivim  or  wade.  I  rowed  only  across  the  river  =  across,  not  up 
or  down  etc.  I  rowed  across  the  river  only  =  the  river  only,  not  the 
bay  etc.  Merely  to  see  (not  to  merely  see)  her  was  sufficient.  Not 
every  collegian  is  a  scholar  (not  Every  collegian  is  not  a  scholar). 

Direction. — Study  ttie  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct 
these  errors : — 

1.  I  have  thought  of  marrying  often.  2.  We  only  eat  three  meals  a 
day.     3.  He  hopes  to  rapidly  recruit.    4.  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

*  Instances  of  the  "  cleft,  or  split,  infinitive  "—the  infinitive  separated  from  its  to  by 
an  intervening  adverb— are  found  in  Early  English  and  in  English- all  the  way  down. 
Fitzedward  Hall  and  others  have  shown  this. 

But  there  can  be  no  question  that  usage  is  overwhelmingly  against  an  adverb's 
standing  between  to  and  the  infinitive.  Few  writers  ever  place  an  adverb ''there  at 
ail  ;  and  these  few,  only  an  occasional  adverb,  and  that  adverb  only  occasionally. 

Whether  the  adverb  should  be  placed  before  the  to  or  after  the  infinitive  is  often  a 
nice  question,  sometimes  to  be  determined  by  the  ear  alone.  It  should  never  stand, 
however,  where  it  woul^d  leave  the  meaning  ambiguous  or  in  any  way  obscure. 


J92  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 

5,  He  tries  to  distinctly  speak.  6.  He  tries  distinctly  to  speak,  7. 
All  that  glitters  is  not  gold.  8.  His  sagacity  almost  appears  mirac- 
ulous. 

Caution. — Unless  you-  wish  to  affirm,  do  not  use  two 
negative  words  so  that  they  shall  contradict  each  other.* 

E^xamples. — No  one  has  (not  hasn't)  yet  reached  the  North  Pole. 
No  -jmpleasant  circumstance  happened  (proper,  because  it  is  intended 
to  afBrm). 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct 
these  errors : — 

1.  No  other  reason  can  never  be  given.  2.  He  doesn't  do  nothing. 
3.  He  isn't  improving  much,  I  don't  think.  4.  There  must  be  some- 
thing wrong  when  children  do  not  love  neither  father  nor  mother.  5. 
He  isn't  no  sneak.     6.  Charlie  Ross  can't  nowhere  be  found. 

Caution. — Do  not  use  adverhs  for  adjectives  or  adjec- 
tives for  adverhs. 

Examples. — The  moon  looks  calm  and  peaceful  (not  calmly  and 
peacefully,  as  the  words  are  intended  to  describe  the  moon).  The 
moon  looks  down  calmly  and  peacefully  on  the  battlefield  (not  calm 
and  peaceful,  as  the  words  are  intended  to  tell  how  she  performs  the 
act).     I  slept  soundly  (not  good  or  sound). 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct 
these  errors : — 

1,  It  was  a  softly  blue  sky.  2.  The  rivei*  runs  rapid.  3.  You  must 
read  more  distinct.  4.  It  was  an  uncommon  good  harvest.  5.  She  is 
most  sixteen.     6.  The  discussion  waxed  warmly.     7.  The  prima  donna 

*  Not  infrequently  we  use  two  negatives  to  make  an  affirmation ;  aa,  He  is  rwt 
^mjust;  No  man  can  do  nothing. 


Construction  of  Adverbs— Continued.  193 


sings  sweet.  8.  She  is  miserable  poor.  9.  My  head  feels  badly.  10. 
He  spoke  up  prompt.  11.  He  w-ent  most  there.  12.  He  behaved  very 
bad.     13.  This  is  a  mighty  cold  day. 

Direction. —  Write  correct  sentences  illustrating  every  point  in 
these  four  Cautions. 

LESSON    94. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    ADVERBS-CONTINUED. 
Miscellaneous  Errors. 

Direction. — Oive  the  Cautioiis  which  these  sentences  violate,  and 
correct  the  errors: — 

1.  Begin  it  over  again.  3.  This  can  be  done  easier.  3.  The  house 
is  extra  warm.  4.  Most  every  one  goes  there.  5.  I  have  a  pencil  that 
long.  6.  He  hasn't  his  lesson,  I  don't  believe.  7.  A  circle  can't  in  no 
way  be  squared.  8.  This  is  a  remarkable  cold  winter.  9.  The  one  is 
as  equally  deserving  as  the  other.  10.  Feathers  feel  softly.  11.  It  is 
pretty  near  finished.  12.  Verbosity  is  when  too  many  words  are  used. 
13.  It  is  a  wonderful  fine  day.  14.  He  is  some  better  just  now.  15. 
Generally  every  morning  we  went  to  the  spring.  16.  I  wish  to  simply 
state  this  point.  17.  He  tried  to  not  only  injure  but  to  also  ruin  the 
man.  18.  The  lesson  was  prodigiously  long.  19.  The  cars  will  not 
stop  at  this  station  only  when  the  bell  rings.  20.  He  can  do  it  as  good 
as  any  one  can.  21.  Most  everybody  talks  so.  22.  He  hasn't  yet 
gone,  I  don't  believe.  23.  He  behaved  thoughtlessly,  recklessly,  and 
carelessly.  24.  That  'ere  book  is  readable.  25.  I  will  not  go  but 
once.  26.  I  can't  find  out  neither  where  the  lesson  begins  nor  where 
it  ends.  27.  They  were  nearly  dressed  alike.  28.  The  tortured  man 
begged  that  they  would  kill  him  again  and  again.  29.  The  fortune 
was  lavishly,  profusely,  and  prodigally  spent.  30.  I  am  real  glad  to 
see  you.     31.  We  publish  all  the  information,  official  and  otherwise. 


194 


Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


LESSON    95. 


PREPOSITIONS. 

DEFINITION.— A  Preposition  is  a  word  that  introduces 
a  phrase  modifier,  and  shows  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  its 
principal  word  to  the  word  modified. 

Composition. 

Direction.  —  We  give  below  a  list  of  the  prepositions  in  common 

use.    Make  short  sentences  in  which  each  of  these  shall  be  aptly  used. 
Use  two  or  three  of  them  in  a  single  sentence  if  you  wish : — 

ere,  till, 

for,  to, 

from,  toward, 

in,  towards, 

into,  under, 

of,  underneath, 

on,  until, 

over,  unto, 

past,  up, 

round,  upon, 

since,  with, 

through,  within, 

throughout,  without. 

Remarks. — Bating,  concerning,  during,  excepting,  notwithstand- 
ing, pending,  regarding,  respecting,  saving,  and  touching  are  still 
participles  in  form  and  sometimes  are  such  in  use.  But  in  most  cases 
the  participial  meaning  has  faded  out  of  them,  and  they  express  mere 
relations. 

But,  except,  and  save,  in  such  a  sentence  as,  All  but  or  except  or 
save  him  were  lost,  are  usually  classed  with  prepositions. 


Aboard, 

athwart, 

about. 

before. 

above. 

behind. 

across. 

below, 

after. 

beneath. 

against. 

beside. 

along. 

besides. 

amid, 

between, 

amidst. 

betwixt. 

among, 

beyond. 

amongst. 

but, 

around. 

by, 

at, 

down. 

Construction  of  Prepositions.  195 


The  phrases  aboard  of,  according  to,  along  with,  as  to,  because  of 
(by  cause  of),  from  among,  from  between,  from  under,  instead  of 
(in  stead  of),  out  of,  over  against,  and  round  about  may  be  called 
componnd  prepositions.  But  from  in  these  compounds  ;  as,  He 
crawled  from  under  the  ruins,  really  introduces  a  phrase,  the  prin- 
cipal term  of  which  is  the  phrase  that  follows  from. 

Many  prepositions  become  adverbs  when  the  noun  which  ordinarily 
follows  them  is  omitted  ;  as,  He  rode  past ;  He  stands  above. 


LESSON    96. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PREPOSITIONS. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Most  prepositions  express  relations  so  diverse,  and  so  delicate 
in  their  shades  of  distinction  that  a  definition  of  them  based  upon  etymology  would 
mislead.  A  happy  and  discriminating  use  of  prepositions  can  be  acquired  only  by  an 
extended  study  of  good  authors.  We  do  below  all  that  we  think  it  prudent  or  profit- 
able to  do  with  them.  He  should  be  a  man  of  wide  and  careful  reading  who  assumes 
to  teach  pupils  that  such  prepositions,  and  such  only,  should  be  used  with  certain 
words.  Nowhere  in  grammar  is  dogmatism  more  dangerous  than  here.  That  gram- 
marian exceeds  his  commission  who  marks  out  for  the  pupils'  feet  a  path  narrower 
than  the  highway  which  the  usage  of  the  best  writers  and  speakers  has  cast  up.* 

*  Take  a  single  illustration.  Grammarians,  in  general,  teach  that  between  and  betwixt 
"refer  to  two,"  are  used  "only  when  two  things  or  sets  of  things  are  referred  to." 
Ordinarily,  and  while  clinging  to  their  derivation,  they  are  so  used,  but  are  they 
always,  and  must  they  be  ?  "There  was  a  hunting  match  agreed  upon  betwixt  a  lion, 
an  ass,  and  a  fox.'"— L' Estrange.  "  A  Triple  Alliance  between  England,  Holland,  and 
Sweden."— j:  H.  Green.  "In  the  vacant  space  between  Persia,  Syria,  Egypt,  and 
Ethiopia."— G^^ftdon.  "His  flight  between  the  several  woTlds.'^—Addisoti.  "The 
identity  of  form  between  the  nominative,  accusative,  and  vocative  cases  in  the  neuter." 
—  G.  P.  Marsh.  "  The  distinction  between  these  three  orders  has  been  well  expressed 
by  Prof.  Max  Mflller."— W^.  D.  Whitney.  "Between  such  dictionaries  as  Worcester's, 
The  Imperial,  and  Webster's."- i?.  G.  White.  "Betwixt  the  slender  boughs  came 
glimpses  of  her  ivory  neck.''''— Bryant.  With  what  clumsy  circumlocutions  would  our 
be  filled  if  prepositions  could  never  slip  the  leash  of  their  etymology  !    What 


196  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


Direction. —  We  give  below  a  few  words  with  the  prepositions  which 
usually  accompany  them.  Form  short  sentences  containing  these 
words  comMned  with  each  of  the  prepositions  which  follow  them,  and 
note  carefully  the  different  relations  expressed  by  the  different  preposi- 
tions : — 

(Oonsult  the  dictionary  for  both  the  preposition  and  the  accompany- 
ing word.) 

Abide  at,  by,  with;  accommodate  to,  with;  advantage  of,  over; 
agree  to,  with  ;  angry  at,  with ;  anxious  about,  for ;  argue  against, 
with;  arrive  at,  in;  attend  on  or  upon,  to;  careless  about,  in,  of; 
communicate  to,  with;  compare  to,  with;  consists  in,  of;  defend 
against,  from ;  die  by,  for,  of;  different  from;  disappointed  in,  of; 
distinguish  by,  from;  familiar  to,  with ;  impatient  for,  of ;  indulge 
in,  with  ;  influence  on,  over,  with  ;  insensible  of,  to  ;  sat  beside;  many 
besides. 


LESSON    97. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED. 
Direction. — Do  with  the  following  words  as  with  those  above  : — 
Inquire  after,  for,  into,  of;  intrude  into,  upon;  joined  to,  with; 
liberal  of,  to;  live  at,  in,  on;  look  after,  for,  on;  need  of;  obliged 

simple  and  graceful  substitute  could  be  found  for  the  last  phrase  in  this  sentence,  for 
instance  :  There  were  forty  desks  in  the  room  with  ample  space  between  them  ? 

"We  observe  that  between  is  not  restricted  to  two^— Imperial  Dictionary.  "  In 
all  senses  between  has  been,  from  its  earliest  appearance,  extended  to  more  than  two. 
It  is  still  the  only  word  available  to  express  the  relation  of  a  thing  to  many  surround- 
ing things  severally  and  individually— among'  expressing  a  relation  to  them  collectively 
and  vaguely  :  we  should  not  say,  'The  choice  lies  among  the  three  candidates,'  or  '  to 
insert  a  needle  among  the  closed  petals  of  a  flower. '  "— 7%e  New  English  Dictionary. 

We  have  collected  hundreds  of  instances  of  between  used  by  good  writers  with 
three  or  more. 

Guard  against  such  expressions  as  between  each  page ;  a  choice  between  one  of  several. 


Construction  of  Prepositions— Continued.  197 


for,  to ;  part  from,  with ;  placed  in,  on ;  reconcile  to,  with ;  regard 
for,  to  ;  remonstrate  against,  with ;  sank  beneath,  in,  into  ;  share  m, 
of,  with;  sit  in,  on  or  upon;  smile  at,  on;  solicitous  about,  for; 
strive  for,  with,  against;  taste  for,  of;  touch  at,  on  or  upon;  useful 
for,  in,  to  ;  weary  of,  in,  with ;  yearn  for,  towards. 


LESSON    98. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Great  care  must  be  used  in  the  choice  of 
prepositions. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors: — 

1.  This  book  is  different  to  that.  2.  He  stays  to  home.  3.  They  two 
quarreled  among  each  other.  4.  He  is  in  want  for  money.  5.  I  was 
followed  with  a  crowd.  6.  He  fell  from  the  bridge  in  *  the  water.  7. 
He  fought  into  *  the  Revolution.  8.  He  bears  a  close  resemblance  of 
his  father.  9.  He  entered  in  the  plot.  10.  He  lives  at  London.  11. 
He  lives  in  the  turn  of  the  road.  12.  I  have  need  for  a  vacation.  13. 
The  child  died  with  the  croup.  14.  He  took  a  walk,  but  was  disap- 
pointed of  it.  15.  He  did  not  take  a  walk  ;  he  was  disappointed  in 
it.  16.  He  was  accused  with  felony.  17.  School  keeps  upon  Monday. 
18.  Place  a  mark  between  each  leaf.  19.  He  is  angry  at  his  father. 
20.  He  placed  a  letter  into  my  hands.  21.  She  is  angry  with  your 
conduct.  22.  What  is  the  matter  of  him  ?  23.  I  saw  him  over  to  the 
house.  24.  These  plants  differ  with  each  other.  25.  He  boards  to 
the  hotel.  26.  I  board  in  the  hotel.  27.  She  stays  at  the  North.  28. 
I  have  other  reasons  beside  f  these.     29.  You  make  no  use  with  your 


*  In  denotes  motion  or  rest  in  a  condition  or  place  ;  into,  change  from  one  condition 
or  place  into  another.  "  When  one  is  outside  of  a  place,  he  may  be  able  to  get  into 
it ;  but  he  cannot  do  anjrthing  in  it  until  he  has  got  into  it." 

It  Beside  =  by  the  side  of;  besides  =  in  addition  tQ. 


198  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


talents.  30.  He  threw  himself  onto  the  bed.  31.  The  boys  are  hard  to 
work.  32.  He  distributed  the  apples  between  his  four  brothers.  33. 
He  went  in  the  park.  34.  You  can  confide  on  him.  35.  He  arrived  to 
Toronto.  36.  I  agree  with  that  plan.  37.  The  evening  was  spent 
by  reading.  38.  Can  you  accommodate  me  in  one  of  those  ?  39.  What 
a  change  a  century  has  produced  upon  our  country  !  40.  He  stays  to 
school  late.  41.  The  year  of  the  Restoration  plunged  Milton  in  bitter 
poverty.  42.  The  Colonies  declared  themselves  independent  from 
England.  43.  I  spent  my  Saturdays  by  going  in  the  country,  and 
enjoying  myself  by  fishing. 


LESSON    99. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    PREPOSITIONS-CONTINUED.* 

Caution. — Do  not  use  prepositions  needlessly. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors: — 

1.  I  went  there  at  about  noon.     2.  In  what  latitude  is  Boston  in  ? 

*  "  A  preposition  is  a  feeble  word  to  end  a  sentence  with,''''  we  are  told.  Sentences 
(10)  and  (13),  Lesson  59,  (2),  Lesson  60,  and  many  in  succeeding  Lessons  violate  the 
rule  so  carelessly  expressed. 

Of  this  rule,  laid  down  without  regard  to  usage  and  thoughtlessly  repeated,  Prof. 
Austin  Phelps  says,  "  A  preposition  as  such  is  by  no  naeans  a  feeble  word  ;  "  and  he 
quotes  a  burst  of  feeling  from  Rufus  Choate  which  ends  thus  :  "  Never,  so  long  as 
there  is  left  of  Plymouth  Kock  a  piece  large  enough  to  make  a  gunflint  of!  "' 
"This,"  Professor  Phelps  says,  "is  purest  idiomatic  English."  He  adds,  "The  old 
Scotch  interrogative,  '  What  for  f '  is  as  pure  English  in  written  as  in  colloquial 
speech." 

Sentences  containing  two  prepositions  before  a  noun  are  exceedingly  conmion  in 
English—"  The  language  itself  is  inseparable  from,  or  essentially  a  part  o/",  the 
thoughts.''''  Such  sentences  have  been  condemned,  but  the  worst  that  can  be  urged 
against  them  is,  that  they  lack  smoothness.    But  smoothness  is  not  always  desirable. 

Sentences  containing  a  transitive  verb  and  a  preposition  before  a  noun  are  very 
common— "  Powerless  to  affect,  or  to  be  affected  by,  the  times.'''' 


Construction  of  Prepositions— Continued.  199 


3.  He  came  in  for  to  have  a  talk.  4.  I  started  a  week  ago  from  last 
Saturday.  5.  He  was  born  August  15,  in  1834.  6.  A  good  place  to 
see  a  play  is  at  Wallack's.  7.  He  went  to  home.  8.  I  was  leading  of 
a  horse  about.  9.  By  what  states  is  Kentucky  bounded  by  ?  10.  His 
servants  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey.  11.  Where  are  you  going  to  ?  13. 
They  admitted  of  the  fact.  13.  Raise  your  book  off  of  the  table.  14. 
He  took  the  poker  from  out  of  the  fire.  15.  Of  what  is  the  air  com- 
posed of  ?  16.  You  can  tell  by  trying  of  it.  17.  Where  have  you 
been  to  ?  18.  The  boy  is  like  to  his  father.  19.  They  offered  to  him 
a  chair.  20.  This  is  the  subject  of  which  I  intend  to  write  about. 
21.  Butter  brings  twenty  cents  for  a  pound.  22.  Give  to  me  a  knife. 
23.  I  have  a  brother  of  five  years  old.  24.  To  what  may  Italy  be 
likened  to  ?  25.  In  about  April  the  farmer  puts  in  his  seed.  26. 
Jack's  favorite  sport  was  in  robbing  orchards.  27.  Before  answering 
of  you,  I  must  think.  28.  He  lives  near  to  the  river.  29.  Keep  off 
of  the  grass. 

Caution. — Do  not  omit  prepositions  when  they  are 
needed.  ' 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  There  is  no  use  going  there.  2.  He  is  worthy  our  help.  3.  I 
was  prevented  going.  4.  He  was  banished  the  country.  5.  He  is 
unworthy  our  charity.  6.  What  use  is  this  to  him  ?  7.  He  was  born 
on  the  15th  August,  1834.  8.  Adam  and  Eve  were  expelled  the 
garden.  9.  It  was  the  size  of  a  pea.  10.  Egypt  is  the  west  side  of 
the  Red  Sea.  11.  His  efforts  were  not  for  the  great,  but  the  lowly. 
12.  He  received  dispatches  from  England  and  Russia. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  prepositions  in  Lessons  80  and  81,  and 
name  the  words  between  which,  in  sense,  they  show  the  relation. 


dOO  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


LESSON    lOO. 

CLASSES    OF    CONJUNCTIONS    AND    OTHER 
CONNECTIVES. 

Introductory  Hints. — The  stars  look  down  upon  the  roofs  of  the 
living  and  upon  the  graves  of  the  dead,  hut  neither  the  living  nor  the 
dead  are  conscious  of  their  gaze.  Here  and,  but,  neither,  and  nor 
connect  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  of  equal  rank,  or  order,  and  so  are 
called  Co-ordinate  Conjunctions.  Both  clauses  may  be  independ- 
ent, or  both  dependent  but  of  equal  rank. 

At  the  burning  of  Moscow,  it  seemed  as  [it  would  seem]  if  the 
heavens  were  lighted  up  that  the  nations  might  behold  the  scene. 
Here  as,  if,  and  that  connect  each  a  lower,  or  subordinate,  clause  to  a 
clause  of  higher  rank,  and  hence  are  called  Subordinate  Conjunc- 
tions. One  clause  may  be  independent  and  the  other  dependent,  or 
both  dependent  but  of  unequal  rank. 


DEFINITIONS. 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words,  phrases, 
or  clauses.* 

Co-ordinate  Conjunctions  are  such  as  connect  words, 
phrases,  or  clauses  of  the  same  rank. 

Subordinate  Conjunctions  are  such  as  connect  clauses 
of  different  rank. 

Remark. — Some  of  the  connectives  below  are  conjunctions  proper  ; 
some  are  relative  pronouns  ;  and  some  are  adverbs  or  adverb  phrases, 

*  Some  of  the  co-ordinate  conjunctions,  as  and  and  but,  connect,  in  thought,  sen- 
tences separated  by  the  period,  and  even  connect  paragraphs.  In  analysis  and  pars- 
ing, we  regard  only  the  individual  sentence  and  treat  such  connectives  as  intro- 
ductory. 


Classes  of  Conjunctions  and  Other  Connectives.     201 


which,  in  addition  to  their  office  as  modifiers,  may,  in  the  absence  of 
the  conjunction,  take  its  office  upon  themselves  and  connect  the 
clauses. 

To  THE  Teacher.— We  do  not  advise  the  memorizing  of  these  lists.  The  pupils 
should  be  able  to  name  the  different  groups,  and  some  of  the  most  common  con- 
nectives of  each  group. 

Co-ordinate   Connectives.* 

Copulative. — And,  both  .  .  .  and,  as  well  as  f  are  conjunctions 
proper.  Accordingly,  also,  besides,  consequently,  furthermore,  hence, 
likewise,  moreover,  now,  so,  then,  and  therefore  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Adversative. — But  and  whereas  are  conjunctions  proper.  How- 
ever, nevertheless,  notwithstanding,  on  the  contrary,  on  the  other  hand, 
still,  and  yet  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 

Alternative. — Neither,  nor,  or,  either  .  .  .  or,  and  neither  .  .  . 
nor  are  conjunctions  proper.  Ulse  and  otherwise  are  conjunctive 
adverbs. 

Subordinate   Connectives. 

CONNECTIVES   OF  ADJECTIVE   CLAUSES. 

TTiat,  what,  whatever,  which,  whichever,  who,  and  whoever  are  rela- 
tive pronouns.  When,  where,  whereby,  wherein,  and  why  are  conjunc- 
tive adverbs.  *^ 

CONNECTIVES   OF   ADVERB   CLAUSES. 

Time. — After,  as,  before,  ere,  since,  till,  until,  when,  whenever,  while,. 
and  whilst  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 
Place. — Whence,  where,  and  wherever  &re  conjunctive  adverbs. 

*  Copulative  conjunctions  join  parts  in  the  same  line  of  thought ;  Adversative 
conjunctions  join  parts  contrasted  or  opposed  in  meaning  ;  Alternative  conjunc- 
tions join  parts  so  as  to  offer  a  choice  or  a  denial.    See  Lesson  76. 

t  The  as  well  as  in,  He,  as  well  as  I,  went ;  and  not  that  in,  He  is  as  well  as  I  am. 


802  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


Degree. — As,  than,  that,  and  the  are  conjunctive  adverbs,  correla- 
tive with  adjectives  or  adverbs. 

Manner, — As  is  a  conjunctive  adverb,  correlative,  often,  with  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb.  v«!v 

cMeal  Cause. — As,  because,  for,  since,  and  whereas  are  conjunctions 
proper. 

Evidence. — Because,  for,  and  si7ice  are  conjunctions  proper. 

Purpose. — In  order  that,  lest  (=  that  not),  that,  and  so  that  are  con- 
junctions proper. 

Coridition. — Except,  if,  in  case  that,  on  condition  that,  provided, 
provided  that,  and  unless  are  conjunctions  proper. 

Concession. — Although,  if  (=  even  if),  notwithstanding,  though, 
and  whether  are  conjunctions  proper.  However  is  a  conjunctive  ad- 
verb. Whatever,  whichever,  and  whoever  are  relative  pronouns  used 
indefinitely. 

CONNECTIVES   OF   NOUN    CLAUSES. 

If,  lest,  that,  and  whether  *  are  conjunctions  proper.  What,  which, 
and  who  are  pronouns  introducing  questions  ;  and  how,  when,  whence, 
where,  and  why  are  conjunctive  adverbs  introducing  questions. 

Direction. — Study  the  lists  above,  and  point  out  all  the  connectives 
in  Lessons  80  and  81,  telling  which  are  relative  pronouns,  which  are 
conjunctions  proper,  and  which  are  conjunctive  adverbs. 


To  THE  Teacher.— If  the  pupils  lack  maturity,  or  if  it  is  found  necessary  to 
abridge  this  work  in  order  to  conform  to  a  prescribed  course  of  study,  the  six  follow- 
ing Lessons  may  be  omitted.  The  authors  consider  these  exercises  very  profitable,  but 
their  omission  will  occasion  no  break  in  the  course. 

*  Etymologically,  whether  is  restricted  to  two  ;  but  it  has  burst  the  bonds  of  its 
etymology  and  is  very  freely  used  with  three  or  more. 

The  repetition  of  whether,  like  the  use  of  it  with  three  or  more  things,  has  been 
condemned,  but  usage  allows  us  to  repeat  it. 

Whether orno  is  also  allowed. 


Connectives.  203 


LESSON    lOl. 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES. 

Direction. —  Write  twenty  compound  sentences  whose  clauses  shall 
he  joined  hy  connectives  named  in  the  three  subdivisions  of  co-ord  i- 
nate  connectives. 


LESSON    10  2. 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. 

Direction. —  Write  twenty  complex  sentences  whose  clauses  shall  he 
joined  hy  connectives  of  adjective  clauses,  and  hy  connectives  of 
adverb  clauses  of  time,  place,  degree,  and  manner. 


LESSON    103. 

COMPOSITION-CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. 
Direction. —  Write  twenty  complex   sentences  whose  clauses  shall 
be  joined  hy    connectives  of   adverb    clauses  of  real    cause, 
evidence,   purpose,    condition,    and  concession,   and  hy 
connectives  of  noun  clauses. 


LESSON    10  4, 

CONNECTIVES. 
Analysis. 

Direction. — Tell  what  lands  of  clauses  follow  the  connectives  below, 
and  what  are  the  usual  connectives  of  such  clauses,  and  then  analyze 
the  sentences: — 

As  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  manner,  time, 
degree,  cause,  or  evidence.  i 


204  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


1.  Mount  Marcy  is  not  so  high  as  Mount  Washington. 

2.  As  I  passed  by,  I  found  an  altar  with  this  inscription. 

3.  It  must  be  raining,  as  men  are  carrying  umbrellas. 

4.  Ice  floats,  as  water  expands  in  freezing. 

5.  Half-learned  lessons  slip  from  the  memory,  as  an  icicle  from 
the  hand. 

If  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  condition,  time, 
or  concession,  or  it  may  introduce  a  noun  clause. 

6.  If  a  slave's  lungs  breathe  our  air,  that  moment  he  is  free. 

7.  If  wishes  were  horses,  all  beggars  might  ride. 

8.  Who  knows  if  *  one  of  the  Pleiads  is  really  missing  ? 

9.  If  the  flights  of  Dryden  are  higher,  Pope  continues  longer  on 
the  wing. 

Liest   may  connect  a  clause  expressing  purpose,   or  it 
may  introduce  a  noun  clause. 

10.  England  fears  lest  Russia  may  endanger  British  rule  in  India. 

11.  Watch  and  pray  lest  ye  enter  into  temptation. 

Since  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  time,  cause,  or 
-evidence. 

12.  It  must  be  raining,  since  men  are  carrying  umbrellas. 

13.  Many  thousand  years  have  gone  by  since  the  Pyramids  were 
built. 

14.  Since  the  Puritans  could  not  be  convinced,  they  were  per- 
secuted. 

*  Many  grammarians  say  that  if  here  is  improperly  used  for  whether.    But  this  use 
ol  if  \&  common  with  good  authors  in  early  and  in  modem  English. 


Connectives— Continued.  205 


LESSON     105. 

CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 

Direction. — Tell  what  hinds  of  clauses  follow  the  connectives  below, 
and  what  are  the  usual  connectives  of  such  clauses,  and  theti  analyze 
the  sentences : — 

That  may  connect  a  noun  clause,  an  adjective  clause, 
or  a  clause  expressing  degree,  cause,  or  purpose. 

1.  The  Pharisee  thanked  God  that  he  was  not  like  other  men. 

2.  Vesuvius  threw  its  lava  so  far  that  Herculaneum  and  Pompeii 
were  buried. 

3.  The  smith  plunges  his  red-hot  iron  into  water  that  he  ma^ 
harden  the  metal. 

4.  Socrates  said  that  he  who  might  be  better  employed  was  idle. 

5.  We  never  tell  our  secrets  to  people  that  pump  for  them. 

When  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  time,  cause, 
or  condition,  an  adjective  clause  or  a  noun  clause^  or 
it  may  connect  co-ordinate  clauses. 

6.  The  Aztecs  were  astonished  when  they  saw  the  Spanish  horses. 

7.  November  is  the  month  when  the  deer  sheds  its  horns. 

8.  When  the  future  is  uncertain,  make  the  most  of  the  present. 

9.  When  the  five  great  European  races  left  Asia  is  a  question. 

10.  When  judges  accept  bribes,  what  may  we  expect  from  common 
people  ? 

11.  The  dial  instituted  a  formal  inquiry,  when  hands,  wheels,  and 
weights  protested  their  innocence. 

Where  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  place,  an 
adjective  clause,  or  a  noun  clause. 


206  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


12.  No  one  knows  the  place  where  Moses  was  buried. 

13.  Where  Moses  was  buried  is  still  a  question. 

14.  No  one  has  been  where  Moses  was  buried. 

While  may  connect  a  clause  expressing  time  or  eon- 
cession,  or  it  may  connect  co-ordinate  clauses. 

15.  Napoleon  was  a  genius,  while  Wellington  was  a  man  of  talents. 

16.  While  we  sleep,  the  body  is  rebuilt. 

17.  While  Charles  I.  had  many  excellent  traits,  he  was  a  bad  king. 


LESSON     106. 

CONNECTIVES-CONTINUED. 
Analysis. 
Direction. —  Use  the  appropriate  connectives,  and  change  these  com- 
pound sentences  to  complex  without  changing  the  meaning,  and  then 
analyze  them : — 

(Let  one  dependent  clause  be  an  adjective  clause  ;  let  three  express 
cause  ;  five,  condition  ;  and  two,  concession.) 

1.  Caesar  put  the  proffered  crown  aside,  but  he  would  fain  have 
had  it. 

2.  Take  away  honor  and  imagination  and  poetry  from  war,  and  it 
becomes  carnage. 

3.  His  crime  has  been  discovered,  and  he  must  flee. 

4.  You  must  eat,  or  you  will  die. 

5.  Wisdom  is  the  principal  thing,  therefore  get  wisdom. 

6.  Let  but  the  commons  hear  this  testament,  and  they  would  go 
and  kiss  dead  Caesar's  wounds. 

7.  Men  are  carrying  umbrellas  ;  it  is  raining. 

8.  Have  ye  brave  sons  ?  look  in  the  next  fierce  brawl  to  see  them 
die. 


Construction  of  Connectives.  207 


9.  The  Senate  knows  this,  the  Consul  sees  it,  and  yet  the  traitor 
lives. 

10.  Take  away  the  grandeur  of  his  cause,  and  Washington  is  a 
rebel  instead  of  the  purest  of  patriots. 

11.  The  diamond  is  a  sparkling  gem,  and  it  is  pure  carbon. 

Direction. — Two  of  the  dependent  clauses  helow  express  condition^ 
and  three  express  concession.  Place  an  appropriate  conjunction  before 
each,  and  then  analyze  the  sentences : — 

12.  Should  we  fail,  it  can  be  no  worse  for  us. 

13.  Had  the  Plantagenets  succeeded  in  France,  there  would  never 
have  been  an  England. 

14.  Were  he  my  brother,  I  could  do  no  more  for  him. 

15.  Were  I  so  disposed,  I  could  not  gratify  the  reader. 

16.  Were  I  [Admiral  Nelson]  to  die  this  moment,  more  frigates 
would  be  found  written  on  my  heart. 


LESSON    10  7. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  CONNECTIVES. 

Caution. — Some  conjunctions  and  conjunctive  adverbs 
may  stand  in  correlation  with  other  words.  And  may  be 
accompanied  by  loth;  as,  by  as,  by  so,  or  by  such;  hut 
{hut  also  and  hut  likewise),  by  not  only  ;  if,  by  then  ;  nor, 
by  neither ;  or,  by  either  or  by  tohether ;  that,  by  so ;  the, 
by  the ;  though,  by  yet ;  when,  by  then ;  and  where,  by 
there. 

Be  careful  that  the  right  words  stand  in  correlation,  and 
stand  where  they  belong. 


908  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


Examples. — Give  me  neither  riches  nor  (not  or)  poverty.  I  cannot 
find  either  my  book  or  (not  nor)  my  hat.  Dogs  not  only  bark  (not  7iot 
only  dogs  bark)  but  also  bite.  lilot  only  dogs  (not  dogs  not  only)  bark 
but  wolves  also.     He  ivas  neither  (not  neither  was)  rich  nor  poor. 

DirectioD. — Study  the  Caution,  and  correct  these  errors: — 
1.  He  not  only  gave  me  advice  but  also  money.  2.  A  theatrical 
part  may  either  imply  some  peculiarity  of  gesture  or  a  dissimulation 
of  my  real  sentiments.  3.  She  not  only  dressed  richly  but  tastefully. 
4.  Neither  Massachusetts  or  Pennsylvania  has  the  population  of  New 
York.  5.  Thales  was  not  only  famous  for  his  knowledge  of  nature 
but  also  for  his  moral  wisdom.  6.  Not  only  he  is  successful  but  he 
deserves  to  succeed.  7.  There  was  nothing  either  strange  nor  inter- 
esting. 

Caution. — Choose  apt  connectives,  but  do  not  use  them 
needlessly  or  instead  of  other  parts  of  speech. 

Examples. — Seldom,  if  (not  or)  ever,  should  an  adverb  stand 
between  to  and  the  infinitive.  I  will  try  to  (not  and)  do  better  next 
time.  No  one  can  deny  that  (not  hut)  he  has  money.  *  A  harrow  is 
drawn  over  the  ground,  which  (not  and  which)  covers  the  seed.  Who 
doubts  that  (not  hut  that  or  hut  what)  Napoleon  lived  *  ?  The  doctor 
had  scarcely  left  whsn  (not  huf)  a  patient  called.  He  has  no  love  for 
his  father  or  (not  nor)  for  his  mother  (the  negative  no  is  felt  through- 
out the  sentence,  and  need  not  be  repeated  by  nor).  He  was  not  well, 
nor  (not  or)  was  he  sick  (not  is  expended  in  the  first  clause  ;  nor  is 
needed  to  make  the  second  clause  negative). 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct 
these  errors : — 

1.  The  excellence  of  Virgil,  and  which  he  possesses  beyond  other 
poets,  is  tenderness.     2.  Try  and  recite  the  lesson  perfectly  to-morrow. 

*  See  foot-note,  page  176. 


Construction  of  Connectives.  209 

3.  Who  can  doubt  but  that  there  is  a  God  ?  4.  No  one  can  eat  nor 
drink  while  he  is  talking.  5.  He  seldom  or  ever  went  to  church.  6. 
No  one  can  deny  but  that  the  summer  is  the  hottest  season.  7.  I  do 
not  know  as  I  shall  like  it.  8.  He  said  that,  after  he  had  asked  the 
advice  of  all  his  friends,  that  he  was  more  puzzled  than  before. 

Caution. — Else,  other,  otherwise,  rather,  and  adjectives 
and  adverbs  expressing  a  comparison  are  usually  followed 
by  than.  But  else,  other,  and  more,  implying  something 
additional,  but  not  different  in  kind,  may  be  followed  by 
but  ov  besides. 

Examples. — A  diamond  is  nothing  else  than  carbon.  Junius  was 
no  other  than  Sir  Philip  Francis.  The  cripple  cannot  walk  otherwise 
than  on  crutches.  Americans  would  rather  travel  than  stay  at  home. 
I  rose  earlier  than  I  intended.  He  can  converse  on  other  topics 
besides  politics. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct 
these  errors  : — 

1.  Battles  are  fought  with  other  weapons  besides  pop-guns.  2.  The 
moon  is  something  else  but  green  cheese.  3.  Comwallis  could  not  do 
otherwise  but  surrender.  4.  It  was  no  other  but  the  President.  5. 
He  no  sooner  saw  the  enemy  but  he  turned  and  ran. 

Caution. — Two  or  more  connected  words  or  phrases 
referring  to  another  word  or  phrase  should  each  make 
good  sense  with  it. 

Examples. — I  have  always  (add  said)  and  still  do  say  that  labor  is 
honorable.     Shakespeare  was  greater  than  any  other  poet  that  has 
(add  lived)  or  is  now  alive.     The  boy  is  stronger  than  his  sister,  but 
not  so  tall  (not  The  boy  is  stronger,  but  not  so  tall,  as  his  sister). 
14 


210  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Examples,  and  correct 
these  errors : — 

1.  Gold  is  heavier,  but  not  so  useful,  as  iron.  2.  Gold  is  not  so 
useful,  but  heavier,  than  iron.  3.  This  is  as  valuable,  if  not  more  so, 
than  that.  4.  Faithful  boys  have  always  and  always  will  learn  their 
lessons.  5.  Bread  is  more  nutritious,  but  not  so  cheap,  as  potatoes. 
6.  This  dedication  may  serve  for  almost  any  book  that  has,  is,  or  may 
be  published. 

LESSON    108. 

MISCELLANEOUS    ERRORS. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors,  telling  what  Caution  each  vio- 
lates : — 

1.  Carthage  and  Rome  were  rival  powers  :  this  city  in  Africa,  and 
that  in  Europe  ;  the  one  on  the  northern  coast  of  the  Mediterranean, 
the  other  on  the  southern.  3.  The  right  and  left  lung  were  diseased. 
3.  The  right  and  the  left  lungs  were  diseased.  4.  My  friend  has  sailed 
for  Europe,  who  was  here  yesterday.  5.  There  are  some  men  which 
are  always  young.  6.  I  cannot  think  but  what  God  is  good.  7.  Thim- 
bles, that  are  worn  on  the  finger,  are  used  in  pushing  the  needle.  8. 
A  told  B  that  he  was  his  best  friend.  9.  Them  scissors  are  very  dull. 
10.  Ethan  Allen,  being  a  rash  man,  he  tried  to  capture  Canada.  11. 
The  lady  that  was  thrown  from  the  carriage,  and  who  was  picked  up 
insensible,  died.  12.  The  eye  and  ear  have  different  offices.  13.  I 
only  laugh  when  I  feel  like  it.  14.  This  is  the  same  man  who  called 
yesterday.  15.  He  was  an  humble  man.  16.  He  was  thrown  forward 
onto  his  face.  17.  A  knows  more,  but  does  not  talk  so  well,  as  B. 
18.  The  book  cost  a  dollar,  and  which  is  a  great  price.  19.  At  what 
wharf  does  the  boat  stop  at  ?  20.  The  music  sounded  harshly.  21.  He 
would  neither  go  himself  or  send  anybody.     22.  It  isn't  but  a  short 


Various  Uses  of  What,  That,  and  But.  211 


distance.  23.  The  butter  is  splendid.  24.  The  boy  was  graceful  and 
tall.  25.  He  hasn't,  I  don't  suppose,  laid  by  much.  26.  One  would 
rather  have  few  friends  than  a  few  friends.  27.  He  is  outrageously 
proud.  28.  Not  only  the  boy  skated  but  he  enjoyed  it.  29.  He  has 
gone  way  out  West.  30.  Who  doubts  but  what  two  and  two  are  four  ? 
31.  Some  people  never  have  and  never  will  bathe  in  salt  water.  32. 
The  problem  was  difficult  to  exactly  understand.  33.  It  was  the 
length  of  your  finger.  34.  He  bought  a  condensed  can  of  milk.  35. 
The  fish  breathes  with  other  organs  besides  lungs.  36.  The  death  is 
inevitable.  37.  She  wore  a  peculiar  kind  of  a  dress.  38.  When  shall 
we  meet  together  ?  39.  He  talks  like  you  do.*  40.  This  word  has  a 
different  source  than  that.     41.  No  sooner  did  I  arrive  when  he  called. 


LESSON    10  9. 

VARIOUS  USES  OF  WHAT,  THAT,  AND  BUT. 

What  may  be  used  as  a  relative  pronoun,  an  inter- 
rogative pronoun,  a  definitive  acljective,  an  adverb, 
and  an  interjection. 

Examples.— He  did  what  was  right.  What  did  he  say?  What 
man  is  happy  with  the  toothache  ?  What  with  confinement  and  what 
with  bad  diet,  the  prisoner  found  himself  reduced  to  a  skeleton  (here 
what  =  partly,  and  modifies  the  phrase  following  it).  What !  you  a 
lion  ? 

That  may  be  used  as  a  relative  pronoun,  an  adjective 

*  The  use  of  the  verb  do  as  a  substitute  for  a  preceding  verb  is  one  of  the  most 
remarkable  idioms  in  the  language.  In  its  several  forms  it  stands  for  the  finite  forms 
and  for  the  infinitive  and  the  participle  of  verbs,  transitive  and  intransitive,  regular  and 
irregular.  It  prevents  repetition,  and  hence  is  euphonic ;  it  abbreviates  expression, 
and  therefore  is  energetic. 


213  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


pronoun,  a  definitive  adjective,  a  coiy unction,  and  a 
conjunctive  adverb. 

lExamples. — He  that  does  a  good  deed  is  instantly  ennobled.  That 
is  heroism.  That  man  is  a  hero.  We  eat  that  we  may  live.  It  was 
so  cold  that  the  mercury  froze. 

But  may  be  used  as  a  conjunction,  an  adverb,  an 
adjective,  and  a  preposition. 

Examples. — The  ostrich  is  a  bird,  hut  (adversative  conjunction)  it 
cannot  fly.  Not  a  sparrow  falls  hut  (=  unless — subordinate  conjunc- 
tion) God  wills  it.  He  was  all  hut  (conjunction  or  preposition)  dead  = 
He  was  all  dead,  hut  he  was  not  dead,  or  He  was  all  (anything  in  that 
line)  except  (the  climax)  dead.  No  man  is  so  wicked  hut  (conjunctive 
adverb)  he  loves  virtue  =  No  man  is  wicked  to  that  degree  in  which 
he  loves  not  virtue  {so  =  to  that  degree,  hut  =  in  which  not).  We  meet 
but  (adverb  =  only)  to  part.  Life  is  hut  (adjective  =  only)  a  dream. 
All  hut  (preposition  =  except)  him  had  fled.  The  tears  of  love  were 
hopeless  hut  (preposition  =  except)  for  thee.  I  cannot  hut  remember  = 
I  cannot  do  anything  hut  (preposition  =  except)  remember.  There  is 
no  fireside  hut  (preposition)  has  one  vacant  chair  (except  the  one  which 
has)  ;  or,  regarding  hut  as  a  negative  relative  =  that  not,  the  sen- 
tence =  There  is  no  fireside  that  has  not  one  vacant  chair. 

Direction. — Study  the  examples  given  ahove,  point  out  the  exact 
use  of  what,  that,  and  hut  in  these  sentences,  and  then  analyze 
the  sentences : — 

1.  He  did  nothing  but  laugh.  2.  It  was  once  supposed  that  crystal 
Is  ice  frozen  so  hard  that  it  cannot  be  thawed.  3.  What  love  equals 
a  mother's  ?  4.  There  is  nobody  here  but  me.  5.  The  fine  arts  were 
all  but  proscribed.  6.  There's  not  a  breeze  but  whispers  of  thy  name. 
7.  The  longest  life  is  but  a  day.     8.  What  if  the  bee  love  not  these 


Review  Questions.  21S 


barren  boughs  ?  9.  That  life  is  long  which  answers  life's  great  end. 
10.  What !  I  the  weaker  vessel  ?  11.  Whom  should  I  obey  but  thee  ? 
12.  What  by  industry  and  what  by  economy,  he  had  amassed  a  for- 
tune. 13.  I  long  ago  found  that  out.  14.  One  should  not  always  eat 
what  he  likes.  15.  There's  not  a  white  hair  on  your  face  but  should 
have  its  effect  of  gravity.  16.  It  was  a  look  that,  but  for  its  quiet, 
would  have  seemed  disdain.     17.  He  came  but  to  return. 


LESSON     1 lO. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

Lesson  85. — Define  a  noun.  What  is  the  distinction  between  a 
common  and  a  proper  noun  ?  Why  is  music  a  common  noun  ?  What 
is  a  collective  noun  ?  An  abstract  noun  ?  Define  a  pronoun.  What 
are  the  classes  of  pronouns  ?    Define  them.     What  is  an  antecedent  ? 

Lesson  86. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  he,  it,  and 
tJiey ;  the  needless  use  of  pronouns  ;  the  two  styles  of  the  pronoun  ; 
the  use  of  them  for  those,  and  of  what  for  that ;  and  the  use  of  who, 
which,  that,  and  what. 

Lesson  87. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  connected 
relative  clauses  ;  the  relative  in  clauses  not  restrictive  ;  the  use  of  that 
instead  of  who  or  which  ;  the  position  of  the  relative  clause  ;  and  the 
use  of  this  and  that,  the  one  and  the  other. 

Lesson  89. — Define  an  adjective.  What  two  classes  are  there  ? 
Define  them.     What  adjectives  do  not  limit  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  90. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  the  use  of 
the  adjectives  an,  a,  and  the  ;  and  the  use  of  a  few  and  few,  a  little 
and  little. 

Lesson  91. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  the  choice 
and  the  position  of  adjectives. 


214  Parts  of  Speech  Subdivided. 


Lesson  92. — Define  a  verb.  What  are  transitive  verbs  ?  Intransi- 
tive ?  Illustrate.  What  distinction  is  made  between  the  object  and 
the  object  complement  ?  What  are  regular  verbs  ?  Irregular  ? 
Illustrate.  What  are  the  several  classes  of  adverbs  ?  Define  them. 
What  is  a  conjunctive  adverb  ? 

Lesson  93. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  respecting  the  choice 
and  the  position  of  adverbs,  the  use  of  double  negatives,  and  the  use 
of  adverbs  for  adjectives  and  of  adjectives  for  adverbs. 


LESSON     111. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS-CONTINUED. 

Lesson  95. — Define  a  preposition.  Name  some  of  the  common 
prepositions.  What  is  said  of  some  prepositions  ending  in  ing  9  Of 
hut,  except,  and  save  9  Of  certain  compound  prepositions  ?  When 
do  prepositions  become  adverbs  ? 

Lesson  98. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Caution  as  to  the  choice  of  prep- 
ositions.    What,  in  general,  is  the  difference  between  in  and  into  9 

Lesson  99. — Give  and  illustrate  the  two  Cautions  relating  to  the 
use  of  prepositions. 

Lesson  100. — Define  a  conjunction.  What  are  the  two  great  classes 
of  conjunctions,  and  what  is  their  difference  ?  What  other  parts  of 
speech  besides  conjunctions  connect  ?  What  are  adverbs  that  con- 
nect called  ?  Into  what  three  classes  are  co-ordinate  connectives 
subdivided  ?  Give  some  of  the  conjunctions  and  the  conjunctive 
adverbs  of  each  class.  What  three  kinds  of  clauses  are  connected  by- 
subordinate  connectives  ?  The  connectives  of  adverb  clauses  are  sub- 
divided into  what  classes  ?    Give  a  leading  connective  of  each  class. 

Lessons  104,  105. — Illustrate  two  or  more  offices  of  each  of  the 
connectives  as,  if,  lest,  since,  that,  when,  where,  and  while. 


General  Review.  215 


Lesson  107. — Give  and  illustrate  the  four  Cautions  relating  to  the 
construction  of  connectives. 
Lesson  109. — Illustrate  the  offices  of  what,  that,  and  but. 


GENERAL    REVIEW. 

Schemes   for  the   Conjunction,  Preposition,  and 
Interjection. 

{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 
THE  CONJUNCTION.     Classes.   ]  ^^0^''.  [  ''"-'''• 
THE  PREPOSITION.     No  Classes  (95,  98,  99). 
THE  INTERJECTION.     No  Classes  (20,  21). 


MODIFICATIONS  OF  THE  PARTS 
OF  SPEECH. 


LESSON    112. 

Introductory  Hints. — You  have  learned  that  two  words  may 
express  a  thought,  and  that  the  thought  may  be  varied  by  adding 
modifying  words.  You  are  now  to  learn  that  the  meaning  or  use  of 
a  word  may  be  changed  by  simply  changing  its  form.  The  English 
language  has  lost  most  of  its  inflections,  or  forms,  so  that  many  of 
the  changes  in  the  meaning  and  the  use  of  words  are  not  now  marked 
by  changes  in  form.  These  changes  in  the  form,  the  meaning,  and 
the  use  of  the  parts  of  speech  we  call  their  Modifications.* 

*  Those  grammarians  that  attempt  to  restrict  number,  case,  mode,  etc.— ^hat  we 
here  call  Modifications— io  form,  find  themselves  within  bounds  which  they  continu- 
ally overleap.  They  define  number,  for  instance,  as  a  form,  or  inflection,  and  yet 
Bi)eak  of  nouns  "plural  in  form  but  singular  in  sense,"  or  "singular  in  form  but 
plnral  in  sense ; "  that  is,  if  you  construe  them  rigorously,  plural  or  singular  in  form 
but  singular  or  plural  form  in  sense.  They  tell  you  that  case  is  a  form,  and  yet  insist 
that  nouns  have  three  cases,  though  only  two  forms ;  and  speak  of  the  nominative 
and  the  objective  case  of  the  noun,  "  although  in  fact  the  two  cases  are  always  the 
same  in  form  "—the  two  forms  always  the  same  in  form  ! 

On  the  other  hand,  those  that  make  what  we  call  Modifications  denote  only  relations 
or  conditions  of  words  cannot  cling  to  these  abstract  terms.  For  instance,  they  ask 
the  pupil  to  "pronounce  and  write  the  possessive  of  nouns,"  hardly  expecting,  we 
suppose,  that  the  "  condition  "  of  a  noun  veill  be  sounded  or  written  ;  and  they  eiieak 


218  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Modifications   of   Nouns   and    Pronouns. 

NUMBER. 

The  hoy  shouts.  The  boys  shout.  The  form  of  the  subject  hoy  is 
changed  by  adding  an  s  to  it.  The  meaning  has  changed.  Boy  de- 
notes one  lad  ;  hoys,  two  or  more  lads.  This  change  in  the  form  and 
the  meaning  of  nouns  is  called  Number ;  the  word  hoy,  denoting  one 
thing,  is  in  the  Singular  Number ;  and  hoys,  denoting  more  than 
one  thing,  is  in  the  Plural  Number.  Number  expresses  only  the 
distinction  of  one  from  more  than  one  ;  to  express  more  precisely 
how  many,  we  use  adjectives,  and  say  two  hoys,  four  hoys,  many  or 
several  hoys.  • 

DEFINITIONS. 

Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech  are  changes  in 
their  form,  meaning,  and  nse. 

Number  is  tliat  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  wliicli 
denotes  one  thing  or  more  than  one. 

The  Singular  Number  denotes  one  thing. 

The  Plural  Number  denotes  more  than  one  thing. 

NUMBER   FORMS. 

RULE. — The  plural  of  nouns  is  regularly  formed  by  adding 
s  to  the  singular. 

To  this  rule  there  are  some  exceptions. 

of  "a  noun  in  the  singular  witli  a  plural  application,"  in  which  expression  singviar 
must  be  taken  to  mean  singular  form  to  save  it  from  sheer  nonsense. 

We  know  no  way  to  steer  clear  of  Scylla  and  keep  out  of  Charybdis  but  to  do  what 
by  the  common  use  of  the  word  we  are  allowed  ;  viz.,  to  take  Modifications  with  such 
breadth  of  signification  that  it  will  apply  to  meaning  and  to  use,  as  well  as  to  form. 
Primarily,  of  course,  it  meant  inflections,  used  to  mark  changes  in  the  meaning  and 
use  of  words.  But  we  shall  use  Modifications  to  indicate  changes  in  meaning  and  use 
when  the  form  in  the  particular  instance  is  wanting,  nowhere,  however,  recognizing 
that  as  a  modification  which  is  not  somewhere  marked  by  form. 


Number  Forms.       X  319 


When  the  singular  ends  in  a  sound  that  cannot  unite 
with  that  of  s,  es  is  added  and  forms  another  syllable.  * 

Remark. — Such  words  as  horse,  niche,  and  cage  drop  the  final  e 
when  es  is  added.     See  Rule  1,  Lesson  127. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns,  and 
note  what  letters  represent  sounds  that  cannot  unite  with  the  sound 
of  8  :— 

Ax  or  axe,  arch,  adz  or  adze,  box,  brush,  cage,  chaise,  cross,  ditch, 
face,  gas,  glass,  hedge,  horse,  lash,  lens,  niche,  prize,  race,  topaz. 

The  following  nouns  ending  in  o  preceded  by  a  conso- 
nant add  es  without  increase  of  syllables. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns  : — 

Buffalo,  calico,  cargo,  echo,  embargo,  grotto,  hero,  innuendo, 
motto,  mosquito,  mulatto,  negro,  portico  {oes  or  os),  potato,  tornado, 
torpedo,  veto,  volcano. 

The  following  nouns  in  o  preceded  by  a  consonant  add 
s  only. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns: — 

Canto,  domino  {os  or  oes),  duodecimo,  halo,  junto,  lasso,  memento, 
octavo,  piano,  proviso,  quarto,  salvo,  solo,  two,  tyro,  zero  {os  or  oes). 

Nouns  in  o  preceded  by  a  vowel  add  s. 

Bamboo,  cameo,  cuckoo,  embryo,  folio,  portfolio,  seraglio,  trio. 

*  In  Anglo-Saxon,  as  was  the  plural  termination  for  a  certain  class  of  nouns.  In 
later  English,  as  was  changed  to  es,  which  became  the  regular  plural  ending ;  as, 
bird-es,  daud-es.  In  modem  English,  e  is  dropped,  and  s  is  joined  to  the  singular 
without  increase  of  syllables.  But,  when  the  singular  ends  in  an  «-80und,  the  original 
syllable  es  is  retained,  as  two  hissing  sounds  will  not  unite. 


230  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Common  nouns*  in  y  after  a  consonant  change  y  into  i 
and  add  es  without  increase  of  syllables.  Nouns  in  y 
after  a  vowel  add  s. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 

Alley,  ally,  attorney,  chimney,  oity,  colloquy, f  daisy,  essay,  fairy, 
fancy,  kidney,  lady,  lily,  money,  monkey,  mystery,  soliloquy,  turkey, 
valley,  vanity.  • 

The  following  nouns  change  /  or  fe  into  ves. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 

Beef,  calf,  elf,  half,  knife,  leaf,  life,  loaf,  self,  sheaf,  shelf,  staff,  J 
thief,  wharf,  §  wife,  wolf. 

The  following  nouns  in  /  and  fe  are  regular. 
Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 
Belief,  brief,  chief,  dwarf,  fife,  grief,  gulf,  hoof,  kerchief,   proof, 
reef,  roof,  safe,  scarf,  strife,  waif, 

(Nouns  in  ff,  except  staff,  are  regular  ;~  as,  cuff,  cuffs.) 

The  following  plurals  are  still  more  irregular. 
Direction. — Learn  to  form  the  following  plurals : — 

Child,  children  ;  foot,  feet  ;  goose,  geese  ;  louse,  lice  ;  man,  men  ; 
mouse,  mice  ;  Mr.,  Messrs.;  ox,  oxen  ;  tooth,  teeth  ;  woman,  women. 
(For  the  plurals  of  pronouns,  see  Lesson  124.) 

*  See  Rule  2,  Lesson  127.  In  old  English,  such  words  as  lady  and  fancy  were 
spelled  ladie,fancie.    The  modem  plural  simply  retains  the  old  spelling  and  adds  8. 

t  TT  after  §•  is  a  consonant. 

X  Staff  (a  stick  or  support),  staves  or  staffs ;  staff  (a  body  of  officers),  staffs.  The 
compounds  of  staff  are  regular ;  as,  flagstaffs. 

§  In  England,  generally  wharfs. 


Number  Forms— Continued.  321 

LESSON     113. 

NUMBER    FORMS-CONTINUED. 

Some  nouns  adopted  from  foreign  languages  still  retain 
their  original  plural  forms.  Some  of  these  take  the 
English  plural  also. 

Direction. — Learn  to  form  the  following  plurals : — 

■ 

Analysis,  analyses  ;  antithesis,  antitheses  ;  appendix,  appendices  or 
appendixes  ;  automaton,  automata  or  automatons  ;  axis,  axes  ;  bandit, 
banditti  or  bandits  ;  basis,  bases  ;  beau,  beaux  or  beaus  ;  cherub, 
cherubim  or  cherubs  ;  crisis,  crises  ;  datum,  data  ;  ellipsis,  ellipses  ; 
erratum,  errata  ;  focus,  foci ;  fungus,  fungi  or  funguses  ;  genus, 
genera  ;  hypothesis,  hypotheses  ;  ignis  fatuus,  ignes  fatui ;  madame, 
mesdames  ;  magus,  magi  ;  memorandum,  memoranda  or  memoran- 
dums ;  monsieur,  messieurs  ;  nebula,  nebulae  ;  oasis,  oases  ;  parenthe- 
sis, parentheses  ;  phenomenon,  phenomena  ;  radius,  radii  or  radiuses  ; 
seraph,  seraphim  or  seraphs ;  stratum,  strata ;  synopsis,  synopses  ; 
terminus,  termini  ;  vertebra,  -vertebrae  ;  vortex,  vortices  or  vortexes. 

The  following  compound  nouns,  in  which  the  principal 
word  stands  first,  vary  the  first  word  ;  as,  so^s-in-law. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  the  following  words : — 

Aid-de-camp,  attorney-at-law,  billet-doux,*  commander-in-chief, 
court-martial,  cousin-german,  father-in-law,  hanger-on,  man-of-war. 

The  following,  and  most  compounds,  vary  the  last  word  ; 
as,  pailful5,t  gentlemen. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 

♦  Plural,  bUletg-doux,  pronounced  hii'-lh-dC^. 

t  PaUs  fvU  is  not  a  compound.  This  expression  denotes  a  number  of  pails,  each. 
fnU. 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Courtyard,  dormouse,  Englishman,  fellow  -  servant,  fisherman, 
Frenchman,  forget-me-not,  goose-quill,  handful,  maid-servant,  man- 
trap, mouthful,  pianoforte,  portemonnaie,  spoonful,  stepson,  tete-a- 
tete,  tooth-brush. 

The  following  nouns  (except  Norman)  are  not  compounds 
of  man — add  s  to  all. 

Brahman,  German,  Mussulman,  Norman,  Ottoman,  talisman. 

The  following  compounds  vary  both  parts ;  as,  man- 
sitiger,  men-singers. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  nouns  : — 

Man-child,  man-servant,  woman-servant,  woman-singer. 

Compounds  consisting  of  a  proper  name  preceded  by  a 
title  form  the  plural  by  varying  either  the  title  or  the 
name  ;  as,  the  Miss  Clarhs  or  the  Misses  Clark  ;  but,  when 
the  title  Mrs.  is  used,  the  name  is  usually  varied  ;  as,  the 
Mrs.  Claries.'^ 

Direction. — Form  the  'plural  of  the  following  compounds  : — 

Miss  Jones,  Mr.  Jones,  General  Lee,  Dr.  Brown,  Master  Green. 

A  title  used  with  two  or  more  different  names  is  made 
plural  ;  as,  Drs.  Grimes  and  Steele,  Messrs.  Clark  and 
Maynard. 

Direction. — Put  each  of  the  following  expressions  in  its  proper 
form : — 

*  Of  the  two  forms,  the  Miss  Clarks  and  the  Misses  Clark,  we  believe  that  the 
former  is  most  used  by  the  best  authors.  The  latter,  except  in  formal  notes  or  when 
the  title  is  to  be  emphasized,  is  rather  stiff  if  not  pedantic.  Some  authorities  say 
that,  when  a  numeral  precedes  the  title,  the  name  should  always  be  varied  ;  as,  the  ttoo 
Miss  Clarks. 

The  forms,  the  Misses  Clarks  and  the  two  Mrs.  Clark,  have  little  authority. 


Number  Forms— Continued. 


223 


General  Lee  and  Jackson  ;  Miss  Mary,  Julia,  and  Anna  Scott  ;  Mr. 
Green,  Stacy,  &  Co. 

Letters,  figures,  and  other  characters  add  the  apostrophe 

and  s  to  form  the  plural  *  ;  as,  a's,  2's,  — '5. 

Direction. — Form  the  plural  of  each  of  the  following  characters : — 

S,  i,  t,  +,  X,  t,  9,  1,  i,   !,  3. 


LESSON     114. 

NUMBER    FORMS-CONTINUED. 

Some  nouns  have  two  plurals  differing  in  meaning. 
Direction. — Learn  these  plurals  and  their  meanings  : — 


I  brothers  (by  blood), 
Brother,  •<  brethren  (of  the  same 

(      society). 

(  cannons  (individuals), 
Cannon,  -j  cannon  (in  a  collective 

(      sense). 

{dies   (stamps  for  coin- 
ing), 
dice    (cubes    for    gam- 
ing), 
fishes  (individuals), 
fish  (collection), 
j  feet  (parts  of  the  body), 
{  foot  (foot-soldiers). 
{  geniuses  (men  of  gen- 
Genius,  <      ius), 

'  genii  (spirits). 


Head, 


Horse, 


Die, 

Fish,f 
Foot, 


i  heads    (parts     of     the 
body), 
head  (of  cattle). 
j  horses  (animals), 
(  horse  (horse-soldiers), 
r  indexes  (tables  of  refer- 
,    ,         J      ence), 

'     I  indices     (signs    in    al- 
^     gebra). 

(  pennies  (distinct  coins). 
Penny,  <  pence      (quantity      in 
(      value). 

<  sails  (pieces  of  canvas), 
(  sail  (vessels). 

{shots  (number  of  times 
fired), 
shot  (number  of  balls). 


Sail, 


*  Some  good  writers  form  the  plural  of  words  named  merely  as  words,  in  the 
way  ;  as,  the  i/V  and  and's  ;  but  the  (')  is  here  unnecessary. 

+  The  names  of  several  sorts  of  fish,  as,  herring,  shad,  trout,  etc.  are  used  in  the 
same  way.    The  compoandB  offish,  as  codfish,  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 


224  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  following  nouns  and  pronouns  have  the  same  form 
in  both  numbers. 

Direction. — Study  the  following  list  ;— 

Bellows,  corps,*  deer,  gross,  grouse,  hose,  means,  odds,  pains  (care), 
series,  sheep,  species,  swine,  vermin,  who,  which,  that  (relative),  what, 
any,  none. 

(The  following  have  two  forms  in  the  plural). 

Apparatus,  apparatus  or  apparatuses  ;  heathen,  heathen  or  heathens. 

(The  following  nouns  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers  when 
used  with  numerals  ;  they  add  s  in  other  cases  ;  as,  four  score,  by 
scores.) 

Dozen,  score,  yoke,  hundred,  thousand. 

The  following  nouns  have  no  plural. 

(These  are  generally  names  of  materials,  qualities,  or  sciences.) 

Names  of  materials  when  taken  in  their  full  or  strict  sense  can 
have  no  plural,  but  they  may  be  plural  when  kinds  of  the  material  or 
things  made  of  it  are  referred  to  ;  as,  cottons,  coffees,  tins,  coppers. 

Direction. — Study  the  following  list  of  words  : — 

Bread,  coffee,  copper,  flour,  gold,  goodness,  grammar  (science,  not 
a  book),  grass,  hay,  honesty,  iron,  lead,  marble,  meekness,  milk, 
molasses,  music,  peace,  physiology,  pride,  tin,  water. 

The  following  plural  forms  are  commonly  used  in  the 
singular. 

Acoustics,  ethics,  mathematics,  politics  (and  other  names  of 
sciences  in  ics),  amends,  measles,  news. 

The  following  words  are  always  plural. 
(Such  words  are  generally  names  of  things  double  or  multiform  in 
their  character.) 

*  The  singular  is  pronounced  A5r,  the  plural  k^z. 


Review  in  Number.  225 


Direction. — Study  the  following  list : — 

Aborigines,  annals,  ashes,  assets,  clothes,  fireworks,  hysterics, 
literati,  mumps,  nippers,  oats,  pincers,  rickets,  scissors,  shears, 
snuffers,  suds,  thanks,  tongs,  tidings,  trousers,  victuals,  vitals. 

The  following  were  originally  singular  forms,  but  they 
are  now  treated  as  plural. 

Alms  (Anglo-Saxon  CBlmcesse),  eaves  (A.  S.  efese),  riches  (Norman- 
French  richesse). 

The  following  have  no  singular  corresponding  in  mean- 
ing. 

Colors  (flag),  compa,sses  (dividers),  goods  (property),  grounds  (dregs), 
letters  (literature),  manners  (behavior),  matins  (morning  service), 
morals  (character),  remains  (dead  body),  spectacles  (glasses),  stays 
(corsets),  vespers  (evening  service). 

(The  singular  form  is  sometimes  an  adjective.) 
Bitters,  greens,  narrows,  sweets,  valuables,  etc. 

Collective  nouns  are  treated  as  plural  when  the  individ- 
uals, in  the  collection  are  thought  of,  and  as  singular  when 
the  collection  as  a  whole  is  thought  of. 

Examples. — The  committee  were  unable  to  agree,  and  they  asked 
to  be  discharged.  A  committee  was  appointed,  and  its  report  will 
soon  be  made. 

(Collective  nouns  have  plural  forms  ;  as,  committees,  armies.) 


LESSON     115. 

REVIEW    IN    NUMBER. 

Direction. — Write  the  plural  of  the  singular  nouns  and  pronouns 
in  the  following  list,  and  the  singular  of  those  that  are  plural;  give 
15 


Modifications  of  tFie  Parts  of  Speech. 


the  Rule  or  the  Remark  that  applies  to  each  ;  and  note  those  that  have 
no  plural,  and  those  that  have  no  singular : — 

Hope,  age,  bench,  bush,  house,  loss,  tax,  waltz,  potato,  shoe,  col- 
ony, piano,  kangaroo,  pulley,  wharf,  staff,  fife,  loaf,  flagstaff,  hand- 
kerchief, Mr.,  child,  ox,  beaux,  cherubim,  mesdames,  termini,  genus, 
genius,  bagnio,  theory,  galley,  muff,  mystery,  colloquy,  son-in-law, 
man-of-war,  spoonful,  maid-servant.  Frenchman,  German,  man-ser- 
vant, Dr.  Smith,  Messrs.  Brown  and  Smith,  x ,  i,  deer,  series,  bellows, 
molasses,  pride,  politics,  news,  sunfish,  clothes,  alms,  goods,  grounds, 
greens,  who,  that. 

Direction. — Give  five  words  that  have  no  plural,  five  that  have  no 
singular,  and  five  that  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 

Dipection. — Correct  the  following  plurals,  and  give  the  Remark 
that  applies  to  each: — 

Stagees,  foxs,  mosquitos,  calicos,  heros,  soloes,  babys,  trioes,  chim- 
nies,  storys,  elfs,  beefs,  scarves,  oxes,  phenomenons,  axises,  terminuses, 
genuses,  mother  -  in  -  laws,  aldermans,  Mussulmen,  teeth  -  brushes, 
mouthsful,  attorney-at-laws,  man-childs,  geese-quills,  2s,  ms,  s wines. 


LESSON    116. 

NUMBER    FORMS    IN    CONSTRUCTION. 

The  number  of  a  noun  may  be  determined  not  only 
by  its  form  but  also  by  the  verb,  the  adjective,  and  the 
pronoun  used  in  connection  with  it. 

Remark. — These  scissors  are  so  dull  that  I  cannot  use  them.  The 
plurality  of  scissors  is  here  made  known  in  four  ways.  In  the  follow- 
ing sentence  this,  is,  and  it  are  incorrectly  used  :  This  scissors  is  so 
dull  that  I  cannot  use  it. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns— Gender.  227 


Direction. — Construct  sentences  in  which  the  number  of  each  of 
the  following  nouns  shall  be  indicated  by  the  form  of  the  verb,  by 
the  adjective,  and  by  the  pronoun  used  in  connection  with  it : — 

(With  the  singular  nouns  use  the  verbs  is,  was,  and  has  been ;  the 
adjectives  an,  one,  this,  and  that ;  the  pronouns  he,  his,  him,  she,  her, 
it,  and  its.) 

(With  the  plural  nouns  use  the  verbs  are,  were,  and  have  been;  the 
adjectives  these,  those,  and  two  ;  the  pronouns  they,  their,  and  them.) 

Bellows,  deer,  fish,  gross,  means,  series,  species,  heathen,  trout, 
iron,  irons,  news,  eaves,  riches,  oats,  vermin,  molasses,  Misses,  breth- 
ren, dice,  head  (of  cattle),  pennies,  child,  parent,  family,  crowd, 
meeting. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  the  first  three  of  the  fol- 
lowing adjective  pronouns  shall  be  used  as  singular  subjects,  the  fourth 
as  a  plural  subject,  and  the  remainder  both  as  singular  and  as  plural 
subjects : — 

Each,  either,  neither,  both,  former,  none,  all,  any. 


LESSON    1  1  7. 

NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS-GENDER. 

Introductory  Hints. — The  lion  was  caged.  The  lioness  was  caged. 
In  the  first  sentence  something  is  said  about  a  male  lion,  and  in  the 
second  something  is  said  about  a  female  lion.  The  modification  of 
the  noun  to  denote  the  sex  of  the  thing  which  it  names  is  called 
Gender.  Lion,  denoting  a  male  animal,  is  in  the  Masculine  Gen- 
der; and  lioness,  denoting  a  female  animal,  is  in  the  Feminine 
Gender.  Names  of  things  that  are  without  sex  are  said  to  be  in  the 
Neuter  Gender.     Such  nouns  as  cousin,  child,  friend,  neighbor  are 


228  Modifications  of  tlie  Parts  of  Speech. 


either  masculine  or  feminine.     Such  words  are  sometimes  said  to  be 
in  the  Common  Gender. 

Sex  belongs  to  the  thing;  and  gender,  to  the  noun  that  names  the 
thing.  Knowing  the  sex  of  the  thing  or  its  lack  of  sex,  you  know 
the  gender  of  the  noun  in  English  that  names  it  ;  for  in  our  language 
gender  follows  the  sex.  But  in  such  modern  languages  as  the  French 
and  the  German,  and  in  Latin  and  Greek,  the  gender  of  nouns  naming 
things  without  reference  to  sex  is  determined  by  the  likeness  of  their 
endings  in  sound  to  the  endings  of  words  denoting  things  with  sex. 
The  German  for  table  is  a  masculine  noun,  the  French  is  feminine, 
and  the  English,*  of  course,  is  neuter. 


DEFINITIONS. 
Gender  is  that  modification  of  a  nonn  or  pronoun  wliich 
denotes  sex. 
Tlie  Masculine  Gender  denotes  tlie  male  sex. 
Tlie  Feminine  Gender  denotes  tlie  female  sex. 
The  Neuter  Gender  denotes  want  of  sex. 

Gender  Forms. 

Xo  English  nouns  have  distinctive  neuter  forms,  but 
a  few  have  different  forms  to  distinguish  the  masculine 
from  the  feminine. 

The  masculine  is  distinguished  from  the  feminine  in 
three  ways  : — 

1st.  By  a  difference  in  the  ending  of  the  words. 

2d.   By  different  words  in  the  compound  names. 

3d.  By  using  words  wholly  or  radically  different. 

*  In  Anglo-Saxon,  the  mother-tongue  of  our  language,  gender  was  grammatical,  as 
in  the  French  and  the  German ;  but,  since  the  union  of  the  Norman-French  with  the 
Anglo-Saxon  to  form  the  English,  gender  has  followed  sex. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns— Gender.  229 


Ess"*  is  the  most  common  ending  for  feminine  nouns. 

Direction. — Form  the  feminine  of  each  of  the  following  masculine 
nouns  by  adding  ess : — 

Author,  baron,  count,  deacon,  giant,  god  (see  Rule  3,  Lesson  127), 
heir,  host,  Jew,  lion,  patron,  poet,  prince  (see  Rule  1,  Lesson  127), 
prior,  prophet,  shepherd,  tailor,  tutor. 

(Drop  the  vowel  e  or  o  in  the  ending  of  the  masculine,  and  add  ess.) 

Actor,  ambassador,  arbiter,  benefactor,  conductor,  director,  editor, 
enchanter,  hunter,  idolater,  instructor,  preceptor,  tiger,  waiter. 

(Drop  the  masculine  er  or  or,  and  add  the  feminine  ess.) 

Adventurer,  caterer,  governor,  murderer,  sorcerer. 

(The  following  are  somewhat  irregular.) 

Direction. — Learn  these  forms  : — 

Abbot,  abbess  ;  duke,  duchess  ;  emperor,  empress  ;  lad,  lass  ;  mar- 
quis, marchioness ;  master,  mistress  ;  negro,  negress. 

Ess  was  formerly  more  common  than  now.  Such  words 
as  editor  and  author  are  now  frequently  used  to  denote 
persons  of  either  sex. 

Direction. — Oive  five  nouns  ending  in  er  or  or  that  may  he 
applied  to  either  sex. 

Some  words,  mostly  foreign,  have  various  endings  in 
the  feminine. 

Direction. — Learn  the  following  forms: — 

Administrator,  administratrix  ;  Augustus,  Augusta  ;  beau,  belle  ; 
Charles,  Charlotte  ;  Cornelius,  Cornelia  ;  czar,  czarina  ;  don,  donna ; 

*  The  suffix  €88  came  into  the  English  language  from  the  Norman- French.  It  dis- 
placed the  feminine  termination  of  the  mother-tongue  (A.  S.  estre,  old  English  ster). 
The  original  meaning  of  ster  is  preserved  in  spinster.  Er  (A.  S.  ere)  was  originally  a 
masculine  suffix  ;  but  it  now  generally  denotes  an  agent  without  reference  to  sex ; 
as,  read-er,  speak-er. 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


equestrian,  equestrienne ;  executor,  executrix  ;  Francis,  Prances ; 
George,  Georgiana ;  Henry,  Henrietta ;  hero,  heroine  ;  infante, 
infanta  ;  Jesse,  Jessie  ;  Joseph,  Josephine  ;  Julius,  Julia  or  Juliet ; 
landgrave,  landgravine  ;  Louis,  Louisa  or  Louise  ;  Paul,  Pauline  ; 
signore  or  signor,  signora  ;  sultan,  sultana ;  testator,  testatrix ; 
widower,  widow. 

In  some  compounds  distinguishing  words  are  prefixed 
or  affixed. 

Direction. — Learn  the  following  forms: — 

Billy-goat,  nanny-goat  ;  buck-rabbit,  doe-rabbit  ;  cock-sparrow, 
hen-sparrow ;  Englishman,  Englishwoman ;  gentleman,  gentle- 
woman ;  grandfather,  grandmother  ;  he-bear,  she-bear  ;  landlord, 
landlady  ;  man-servant,  maid-servant  ;  merman,  mermaid  ;  Mr.  Jones, 
Mrs.  or  Miss  Jones  ;  peacock,  peahen. 

Words  wholly  or  radically  different  are  used  to  dis- 
tinguish the  masculine  from  the  feminine. 

(This  is  a  matter  pertaining  to  the  dictionary  rather  than  to 
grammar.) 

Direction. — Learn  the  following  forms  :— 

Bachelor,  maid  ;  buck,  doe  ;  drake,  duck  ;  earl,  countess  ;  friar  or 
monk,  nun  ;  gander,  goose  ;  hart,  roe  ;  lord,  lady  ;  nephew,  niece  ; 
sir,  madam  ;  stag,  hind  ;  steer,  heifer  ;  wizard,  witch  ;  youth,  damsel 
or  maiden. 

The  pronoun  has  three  gender  forms : — 
Masculine  he,  feminine  she,  and  neuter  it.* 
Direction, — Give  five    examples  of   each  of   the  three    ways  of 
distinguishing  the  masculine  from  the  feminine. 

*  It,  although  a  neuter  form,  is  used  idiomatically  to  refer  to  a  male  or  a  female ; 
as,  It  was  John;  It  was  Mary. 


Gender  Forms  in  Construction.  231 


LESSON     118. 

GENDER  FORMS  IN  CONSTRUCTION. 

Gender  as  a  matter  of  orthography  is  of  some  impor- 
tance, but  in  grammar  it  is  chiefly  important  as  involving 
the  correct  use  of  the  pronouns  he,  she,  and  it. 

When  a  singular  noun  is  used  so  as  to  imply  persons  of 
both  sexes,  it  is  commonly  represented  by  a  masculine 
pronoun.* 

Example. — Every  person  has  his  faults. 

The  names  of  animals  are  often  considered  as  mascu- 
line or  feminine  without  regard  to  the  real  sex. 

Elxamples. — The  grizzly  hear  is  the  most  savage  of  his  race.  The 
cat  steals  upon  her  prey. 

Remark. — The  writer  employs  he  or  she  according  as  he  fancies 
the  animal  to  possess  masculine  or  feminine  characteristics.  He  is 
more  frequently  employed  than  she. 

The  neuter  pronoun  it-  is  often  used  with  reference  to 
animals  and  very  young  children,  the  sex  being  disre- 
garded. 

Examples. — When  the  deer  is  alarmed,  it  gives  two  or  three  grace- 
ful springs.  The  little  child  reached  out  its  hand  to  catch  the  sun- 
beam. 

Remark. — It  is  quite  generally  used  instead  of  he  or  she,  in  refer- 

*  When  it  is  necessary  to  distinguish  the  sexes,  both  the  masculine  and  the  femi- 
nine pronoun  should  be  used ;  as,  Each  person  was  required  to  name  his  or  fier 
favorite  flower. 


232  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


ring  to  an  animal,  unless  some  masculine  or  feminine  quality  seems 
to  predominate. 

Inanimate  things  are  often  represented  as  living  beings, 
that  is,  they  are  personified,  and  are  referred  to  by  the 
pronoun  he  or  she. 

Example. — The  oak  shall  send  his  roots  abroad  and  pierce  thy 
mold. 

Remark. — The  names  of  objects  distinguished  for  size,  power,  or 
sublimity  are  regarded  as  masculine ;  and  the  names  of  those  distin- 
guished for  grace,  beauty,  gentleness,  or  productiveness  are  considered 
as  feminine.     Personification  adds  beauty  and  animation  to  style. 

Direction. — Study  what  is  said  above,  and  then  fill  each  of  the 
blanks  in  the  following  sentences  with  a  masculine,  a  feminine,  or  a 
neuter  pronoun,  and  in  each  case  give  the  reason  for  your  selection : — 

1.  No  one  else  is  so  much  alone  in  the  universe  as who  denies 

God.     2.  A  person's  manners  not  unfrequently  indicate morals. 

3.  Everybody  should  think  for .     4.  The  forest's  leaping  panther 

shall  yield spotted  hide.     5.  The  catamount  lies  in  the  boughs  to 

watch prey.     6,  The  mocking-bird  poured  from little  throat 

floods  of  delirious  music.     7.  The  wild  beast  from cavern  sprang, 

the  wild  bird  from grove.     8.  The  night-sparrow  trills song. 

9.  The  elephant  is  distinguished  for strength  and  sagacity.     10. 

The  bat  is  nocturnal  in habits.     11.  The  dog  is  faithful  to 

master.     12.  The  child  was  unconscious  of danger.     13.  The  fox 

is  noted  for cunning.     14.  Belgium's  capital  had  gathered  then 

beauty  and chivalry.     15.  Despair  extends raven  wing. 

16.  Life  mocks  the  idle  hate  of arch-enemy.  Death.     17.  Spring 

comes  forth work  of  gladness  to  contrive.     18.  Truth  is  fearless, 

yet is  meek  and  modest. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns— Person  and  Case.  233 


Direction. —  Write  sentences  in  which  the  things  named  below  shall 
be  personified  by  means  of  masculine  pronouns  : — 
Death,  time,  winter,  war,  sun,  river,  wind. 

Direction. — Write  sentences  in  which  the  things  named  below  shall 
be  personified  by  means  of  feminine  pronouns  : — 

Ship,  moon,  earth,  spring,  virtue,  nature,  night,  England. 

Caution. — Avoid  changing  the  gender  of  the  pronoun 
when  referring  to  the  same  antecedent. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  The  polar  bear  is  comparatively  rare  in  menageries,  as  it  suffers 
so  much  from  the  heat  that  he  is  not  easily  preserved  in  confinement. 
2.  The  cat,  when  it  comes  to  the  light,  contracts  and  elongates  the 
pupil  of  her  eye.  3.  Summer  clothes  herself  in  green,  and  decks  itself 
with  flowers.  4.  War  leaves  his  victim  on  the  field,  and  homes  deso- 
lated by  it  mourn  over  her  cruelty. 


LESSON    119. 

NOUNS    AND    PRONOUNS-PERSON    AND    CASE. 

Introductory  Hints. — Number  and  gender,  as  you  have  learned, 
are  modifications  affecting  the  meaning  of  nouns  and  pronouns — 
number  being  almost  always  indicated  by  form,  or  inflection  ;  gender, 
sometimes.  There  are  two  modifications  which  do  not  refer  to  changes 
in  the  meaning  of  nouns  and  pronouns  but  to  their  different  uses  and 
relations.  These  uses  and  relations  are  not  generally  indicated  by 
form,  or  inflection. 

I,  Paul,  have  written.  Paul,  thou  art  beside  thyself.  He  brought 
Paul  before  Agrippa.  In  these  three  sentences  the  word  Paul  has 
three  different  uses,  though,  as  you  see,  its  form  is  not  changed.  In 
the  first  it  is  used  to  name  the  speaker ;  in  the  second,  to  name  the  one 


234 


Modifications  of  tlie  Parts  of  Speech. 


spoken  to  ;  in  the  third,  to  name  the  one  spoken  of.  These  different 
uses  of  nouns  and  pronouns  and  the  forms  used  to  mark  these  uses 
constitute  the  modification  called  Person.  J,  thoUf  and  he  are  per- 
sonal pronouns,  and,  as  you  see,  distinguish  person  by  their  form,  i, 
denoting  the  speaker,  is  in  the  First  Person  ;  thou,  denoting  the  one 
spoken  to,  is  in  the  Second  Person ;  and  he,  denoting  the  one  spoken 
of,  is  in  the  Third  Person. 

Instead  of  7  a  writer  or  speaker  may  use  the  plural  we ;  and  through 
courtesy  it  came  to  be  customary,  except  among  the  Friends,  or  in  the 
language  of  prayer  and  poetry,  to  use  the  plural  you  instead  of  thou. 

The  hear  killed  the  man.  The  man  hilled  the  hear.  The  hear's 
grease  was  made  into  hair  oil.  In  the  first  sentence  the  bear  is  repre- 
sented as  performing  an  act  ;  in  the  second,  as  receiving  an  act  ;  in 
the  third,  as  possessing  something.  These  different  uses  of  nouns  and 
pronouns  and  the  forms  used  to  mark  these  uses  constitute  the  modi- 
fication called  Case.  A  noun  used  as  subject  is  in  the  Nominative 
Case ;  used  as  object  complement  it  is  in  the  Objective  Case  ;  and 
used  to  denote  possession  it  is  in  the  Possessive  Case. 

Some  of  the  pronouns  have  a  special  form  for  each  case  ;  but  of 
nouns  the  possessive  case  is  the  only  one  that  is  now  marked  by  a 
peculiar  form.     We  inflect  below  *  a  noun  from  the  Anglo-Saxon, 


*  The  Anglo-Saxon  cases  are  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative, 
the  Latin  are  nominative,  genitive,  dative,  accusative,  vocative,  and 
English  are  nominative,  possessive  (genitive),  and  objective. 


Anglo-Saxon. 
Hlaford,  lord. 
Singular.         Pltiral. 
Nom.  hlaford,        hlaford-a«. 
Gen.    hlaford-c»,  hlaford-a. 
Dat.     hlaford-e,    hlaford-wwt. 
Ace.    hlaford,        hlaford-a». 
Voc.    hlaford,       hiaford-aa. 


Latin. 
Dominus,  lord. 
Singular.        Plural. 
Nom.  domin-i**,    domin-i. 
Gren.    domin-i,       domin-oruw. 
Dat.    domin-o,      domin-i«. 
Ace.    domm-um,  domin-os. 
Voc.    domin-e,       domin-i. 
Ab.     domin-o,      domin-i«. 


and  vocative ; 
ablative;  the 

English. 
Lord. 

Singular. 
Nom.  lord, 
Pos.    lord-'*, 
Obj.    lord ; 

Plural. 
Nom.  lord-*, 
Pos.    lord-*', 
Obj.    lord-a. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns— Person  and  Case.  285 


and  one  from  the  Latin,  the  parent  of  the  Norman-French,  in  order 
that  you  may  see  how  cases  and  the  inflections  to  mark  them  have 
been  dropped  in  English.  In  English,  prepositions  have  largely 
taken  the  place  of  case  forms,  and  it  is  thought  that  by  them  our 
language  can  express  the  many  relations  of  nouns  to  other  words 
in  the  sentence  better  than  other  languages  can  by  their  cumbrous 
machinery  of  inflection. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Person  is  that  modification  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
denotes  the  speaker,  the  one  spoken  to,  or  the  one  spoken  of. 

The  First  Person  denotes  the  one  speaking. 

The  Second  Person  denotes  the  one  spoken  to. 

The  Third  Person  denotes  the  one  spoken  of. 

A  noun  is  said  to  be  of  the  first  person  when  joined  as 
an  explanatory  modifier  to  a  pronoun  of  the  first  person  ; 
as,  /,  John,  saw  these  things ;  We  Americans  are  always 
in  a  hurry.* 

A  noun  is  of  the  second  person  when  used  as  explana- 
tory of  a  pronoun  of  the  second  person,  or  when  used 
independently  as  a  term  of  address  ;  as.  Ye  crags  and 
peaks  ;  Idle  time,  John,  is  ruinous. 

Direction. — Compose  sentences  in  which  there  shall  he  two  examples 
of  nouns  and  two  of  pronouns  used  in  each  of  the  three  persons. 
Person    Forms. 

Personal  pronouns  and  verbs  are  the  only  classes  of 
words  that  have  distinctive  person  forms. 

*  It  is  doubtful  whether  a  noun  is  ever  of  the  first  person.  It  may  be  said  that,  in 
the  sentence  /,  John^  saw  these  things^  John  speaks  of  his  own  name,  the  expression 
meaning,  7,  and  my  name  is  John,  etc. 


236  Modifications  of  tine  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. — From  the  forms  of  the  pronouns  given  in  Lesson  124, 
select  and  ivrite  in  one  list  all  the  first  person  forms  ;  in  another  list, 
all  the  second  person  forms;  and  in  another,  all  the  third  person 
forms. 

Person  is  regarded  in  grammar  because  the  verb  some- 
times varies  its  form  to  agree  with  the  person  of  its 
subject ;  as,  /  see ;  Thou  seest ;  He  sees. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Case  is  that  modiflcatiou  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  which 
denotes  its  office  in  the  sentence. 

The  Nominative  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes 
its  office  as  subject  or  as  attribute  complement. 

The  Possessive  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes 
its  office  as  possessive  modifier. 

The  Objective  Case  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  denotes 
its  office  as  object  complement,  or  as  principal  word  in  a 
prepositional  phrase. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  independently  is  said  to  be 
in  the  nominative  case. 

Examples. — I  am,  dear  madam,  your  friend.  Alas,  poor  YoricTc  ! 
He  being  dead,  we  shall  live.     Liberty,  it  has  fled  !     (See  Lesson  44.) 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  explanatory  modifier  is  in 
the  same  case  as  the  word  explained — '*  is  put  by  appo- 
sition in  the  same  case.'' 

£]xainples. — The  first  colonial  Congress,  that  of  1774,  addressed 
the  King,  Oeorge  IIL  He  buys  his  goods  at  Stewards,  the  dry- 
goods  merchant. 


Nouns  and  Pronouns— Person  and  Case. 


A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  objective  complement  is  iu 
the  objective  case. 

Examples. — They  made  him  speaker.     He  made  it  all  it  is. 

A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  attribute  complement  of  a 
participle  or  an  infinitive  is  in  the  same  case  {Nom.  or 
Oij.)  as  the  word  to  which  it  relates  as  attribute. 

Examples. — Being  an  artist,  he  appreciated  it.  I  proved  it  to  be 
him. 

Remark. — When  the  assumed  subject  of  the  participle  or  the 
infinitive  is  a  possessive,  the  attribute  complement  is  said  to  be  in  the 
nominative  case  ;  as,  Its  being  he  *  should  make  no  difference.  When 
the  participle  or  the  infinitive  is  used  abstractly,  without  an  assumed 
subject,  its  attribute  complement  is  also  said  to  be  in  the  nominative 
case  ;  as,  To  be  he  *  is  to  be  a  scholar  ;  Being  a  scholar  is  not  being  an 
idler. 

Direction. — Study  carefully  the  Definitions  and  the  RemarTc  above, 
and  then  compose  sentences  in  which  a  noun  or  a  pronoun  shall  be  put 
in  the  nominative  case  in  four  ways  ;  in  the  objective  in  five  ways  ; 
in  the  possessive  in  two  ways. 

*  The  case  of  he  in  these  examples  is  rather  doubtful.  The  nominative  and  the 
objective  forms  of  the  pronoun  occur  so  rarely  in  such  constructions  that  it  seems 
impossible  to  determine  the  usage.  It  is  therefore  a  matter  of  no  great  practical 
importance. 

Some,  reasoning  from  the  analogy  of  the  Latin,  would  put  the  attribute  comple- 
ment of  the  abstract  infinitive  in  the  objective,  supposing  for  and  some  other  word 
to  be  understood ;  as,  I^or  one  to  be  Jdm,  etc.  Others,  reasoning  from  the  Gterman, 
to  which  our  language  is  closely  allied,  would  put  this  complement  in  the  nominative. 

The  assumed  subject  of  the  infinitive  being  omitted  when  it  is  the  same  in  sense  as 
the  principal  subject,  him,  in  the  sentence  /  wish  {me  or  myself)  to  be  him,  is  the 
proper  form,  being  in  the  same  case  as  m^. 


238  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON     120, 

ANALYSIS    AND    PARSING. 


Direction. — Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  give  the  case  of 
each  noun  and  pronoun : — 

1.  Not  to  know  what  happened  before   we   were  born  is  to  be 
always  a  child. 

2.  His  being  a  Roman  saved  him  from  being  made  a  prisoner. 

3.  I  am  this  day  weak,  though  anointed  king. 

Explanation. — Nouns  used  adverbially  are  in  the  objective  case 
because  equivalent  to  the  principal  word  of  a  prepositional  phrase. 
(See  Lesson  35.) 

4.  What  made  Cromwell  a  great  man  was  his  unshaken  reliance  on 
God. 

5.  Amos,  the  herdsman  of  Tekoa,  was  not  a  prophet's  son. 

6.  Arnold's  success  as  teacher  was  remarkable. 

Explanation. — Teacher,  introduced  by  as  and  used  without  a 
possessive  sign,  is  explanatory  of  Arnold's. 

7.  "Worship  thy  Creator,    God  ;  and   obey   his  Son,    the   Master, 
King,  and  Saviour  of  men. 

8.  Bear  ye  one  another's  *  burdens. 

Explanation. — The  singular  one  is  explanatory  of  the  plural  ye, 
or  one  another's  may  be  treated  as  a  compound. 

9.  What  art  thou,  execrable  shape,  that   darest  advance  ? 

10.  0  you  hard  hearts  !  you  cruel  men  of  Rome  ! 

11.  Everybody  acknowledges  Shakespeare  to  be  the  greatest  of 
dramatists. 

*  For  the  use  of  one  another,  see  Lesson  124. 


Parsing.  239 


12.  Think'st  tbou  this  heart  oould  feel  a  moment's  joy,  thou  being 
absent  ? 

13.  Our  great  forefathers  had  left  him  naught  to  conquer  but  his 
country. 

(For  the  case  of  Mm  see  explanation  of  (3)  above.) 

14.  I  will  attend  to  it  myself. 

explanation. — Myself  may  be  treated  as  explanatory  of  /. 

15.  This  news  of  papa's*  puts  me  all  in  a  flutter. 

16.  What  means  that  hand  upon  that  breast  of  thine  *  ? 


LESSON     121. 

PARSING. 

To  THE  Teacher.— We  do  not  believe  that  the  chief  end  of  the  study  of  grammar 
is  to  be  able  to  parse  well,  or  even  to  analyze  well,  though  without  question  analysis 
reveals  more  clearly  than  parsing  the  structure  of  the  sentence,  and  is  immeasurably 
superior  to  it  as  intellectual  gymnastics.  We  would  not  do  away  with  parsing  alto- 
gether, but  would  give  it  a  subordinate  place. 

But  we  must  be  allowed  an  emphatic  protest  against  the  needless  and  mechanical 
quoting,  in  parsing,  of  "  Rules  of  Syntax."  When  a  pupil  has  said  that  such  a  noun 
is  in  the  nominative  case,  subject  of  such  a  verb,  what  is  gained  by  a  repetition  of  the 
definition  in  the  Rule  :  "  A  noun  or  a  pronoun  which  is  the  subject  of  a  finite  verb  is 
in  the  nominative  case  "  ?  Let  the  reasons  for  the  disposition  of  words,  when  given 
at  all,  be  specific. 

Parsing  a  word  is  giving  its  classification,  its  modifica- 
tions, and  its  syntax,  i.  e.,  its  relation  to  other  words. 

Direction. — Select  and  parse  in  full  all  the  nouns  and  pronouns 
found  in  the  first  ten  sentences  of  Lesson  120.  For  the  agreement  of 
pronouns,  see  Lesson  142. 

♦  See  second  foot-note,  page  247. 


fm 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Model  for  Written   Parsing. 

■  was  beheaded  by  James  I. 


Elizabeth's  favorite,   Raleighp 


CLASSIFICATION. 

MODIFICATIONS. 

SYNTAX. 

Nouns. 

Elizabeth's 
favorite 
Raleigh 
James  I. 

Kind. 

Prop. 
Com. 
Prop. 

Person. 
3d 

1.1. 

Number. 
Sing. 

Gender. 

Fern. 

Mas. 

11 

Case. 

Pos. 
Nom. 

Obj. 

Pos.  Mod.  of /avon^e. 
Sub.  of  was  beheaded. 
Expl.  Mod.  of  favorite. 
Prin.  word  in  Prep,  phrase. 

To  THE  Teacher. — For  exercises  in  parsing  nouns  and  pronouns,  see  Lessons  28» 
29,  30,  31,  33,  34,  35,  44,  46,  59,  60,  71,  73,  78,  80,  and  81.  Other  exercises  may  be 
selected  from  examples  previously  given  for  analysis,  and  parsing  continued  as  long 
as  you  think  it  profitable. 


LESSON     12  2. 

CASE    FORMS-NOUNS. 

Nouns  have  two  case  forms,  the  simple  form,  common 
to  the  nominative  and  the  objective  case,  and  the  possess- 
ive form. 

RULE.— The  Possessive  Case  of  nouns  is  formed  in  the 
singular  by  adding  to  the  nominative  the  apostrophe  and  the 
letter  s  {'s) ;  in  the  plural  by  adding  O  only.  If  the  plural 
does  not  end  in  s,  {'s)  are  both  added.* 


*  In  Anglo  Saxon,  es  was  a  genitive  (possessive)  ending  of  the  singular  ;  as,  stdn., 
genitive  stdn-es.  In  old  English,  es  and  is  were  both  used.  In  modem  English,  the 
vowel  is  generally  dropped,  and  (')  stands  in  its  place.  The  use  of  the  apostrophe 
has  been  extended  to  distinguish  the  possessive  from  other  forms  of  the  plural. 

Some  have  said  that  our  possessive  ending  is  a  remnant  of  the  pronoun  his.  Phrases 
like,  "Mars  his  sword,"  "  The  Prince  his  Players,"  "  King  Lewis  his  satisfaction  "  are 
abundant  in  Early,  and  in  Middle,  English.    But  it  has  been  proved  that  the  his  in 


Case  Forms— Nouns.  241 


Examples. — Boy^s,  boys',  men's. 

Remark. — To  avoid  an  unpleasant  succession  of  hissing  sounds, 
the  s  in  the  possessive  singular  is  sometimes  omitted  ;  as,  conscience^ 
sake,  goodness'  sake,  Achilles'  sword,  Archimedes'  screw  (the  s  in  the 
words  following  the  possessive  here  having  its  influence).  In  prose  this 
omission  of  the  s  should  seldom  occur.  The  weight  of  usage  inclines 
to  the  use  of  s  in  such  names  as  Ifiss  Rounds's,  Mrs.  Hemans's,  King 
James's,  witness's,  prince's.  Without  the  s  there  would  be  no  dis- 
tinction, in  spoken  language,  between  Miss  Round's  and  Miss 
Rounds',  Mrs.  Heman's  and  Mrs.  Ilemans' . 

Reraiark. — Pronounce  the  ('s)  as  a  separate  syllable  (=  es)  when 
the  sound  of  s  will  not  unite  with  the  last  sound  of  the  nominative. 

Remark. — When  the  singular  and  the  plural  are  alike  in  the  nomi- 
native, some  place  the  apostrophe  after  the  s  in  the  plural  to  distin- 
guish it  from  the  possessive  singular  ;  as,  singular,  sheep's;  plural, 
sheeps'. 

Direction. — Study  the  Rule  and  the  Remarks  given  above,  and  then 
write  the  possessive  singular  and  the  possessive  plural 
of  each  of  the  following  nouns : — 

Actor,  elephant,  farmer,  king,  lion,  genius,  horse,  princess,  buffalo, 
hero,  mosquito,  negro,  volcano,  junto,  tyro,  cuckoo,  ally,  attorney, 
fairy,  lady,  monkey,  calf,  elf,  thief,  wife,  wolf,  chief,  dwarf,  waif, 
child,  goose,  mouse,  ox,  woman,  beau,  seraph,  fish,  deer,  sheep, 
swine. 

Coinpound   names   and   groups  of   words   that   may  be 

such  expressions  is  an  error  that  gained  its  wide  currency  largely  through  the  confu- 
sion of  early  English  orthography. 

Professor  Hadley  has  clearly  shown  that  the  Saxon  termination  has  never  dropped 
out  of  the  language,  but  exists  in  the  English  possessive  ending  to-day. 
16 


242  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


treated  as  compound  names  add  the  possessive  sign  to  the 
last  word ;  as,  a  man-of-war's  rigging,  the  queen  of  Eyig^ 
land's  palace,*  Frederick  the  Great's  verses. 

Remark. — The  possessive  plural  of  such  terms  is  not  used. 

The  preposition  of  with  the  objective  is  often  used 
instead  of  the'  possessive  case  form — David's  Psalms  = 
Psalms  of  David. 

Remarks. — To  denote  the  source  from  which  a  thing  proceeds,  or 
the  idea  of  belonging  to,  of  is  used  more  frequently  than  ('s). 

The  possessive  sign  ('«)  is  confined  chiefly  to  the  names  of  persons, 
and  of  animals  and  things  personified.  We  do  not  say  the  tree's  leaves, 
but  the  leaves  of  the  tree. 

The  possessive  sign  however  is  often  added  to  names  of  things 
which  we  frequently  hear  personified,  or  which  we  wish  to  dignify, 
and  to  names  of  periods  of  time,  and  to  words  denoting  value  ;  as,  the 
earWs  surface,  fortune^s  smile,  eternity's  stillness,  a  year's  interest, 
a  day's  work,  a  dollar's  worth,  two  cents'  worth. 

By  the  use  of  of,  such  expressions  as  witness's  statement,  mothers- 
in-law's  faults  may  be  avoided. 

Direction. — Study  ca/refully  the  principles  and  Remarks  given 
aibove,  and  then  make  each  of  the  following  terms  indicate  possession, 
using  either  the  possessive  sign  or  the  preposition  of,  as  may  seem 
most  appropriate,  and  join  an  appropriate  name  denoting  the  thing 


Father-in-law,  William  the  Conqueror,  king  of  Great  Britain,  aid- 

*  In  parsing  the  words  queen  and  England  separately,  the  Cs)  must  be  regarded  as 
belonging  to  queen ;  but  the  whole  phrase  queen  of  England'' s  may  be  treated  as  one 
noun  in  the  possessive  case. 


Construction  of  Possessive  Forms.  243 


de-camp,  Henry  the  Eighth,  attorney-at-law,  somebody  else,*  Jeffer- 
son, enemy,  eagle,  gunpowder,  book,  house,  chair,  torrent,  sun,  ocean, 
mountain,  summer,  year,  day,  hour,  princess,  Socrates. 


LESSON     12  3. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    POSSESSIVE    FORMS. 

As  the  possessive  is  the  only  case  of  nouns  that  has  a 
distinctive  inflection,  it  is  only  with  this  case  that  mis- 
takes can  occur  in  construction. 

Caution. — When  several  possessive  nouns  modify  the 
same  word  and  imply  common  possession,  the  possessive 
sign  is  added  to  the  last  only.  If  they  modify  different 
words,  expressed  or  understood,  the  sign  is  added  to  each. 

Explanation. —  William  and  Henry'' s  boat  ;  William's  and  Henry's 
boat.  In  the  first  example,  William  and  Henry  are  represented  as 
jointly  owning  a  boat  ;  in  the  second,  each  is  represented  as  owning 
a  separate  boat — boat  is  understood  after  William's. 

Remark. — When  the  different  possessors  are  thought  of  as  separate 
or  opposed,  the  sign  may  be  repeated  although  joint  possession  is 
implied  ;  as.  He  was  his  father's,  mother's,  and  sister's  favorite  ;  He 
was  the  King's,  as  well  as  the  people's,  favorite. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors,  and  give  your  reasons: — 

1.  The  Bank  of  England  was  established  in  William's  and  Mary's 
reign,     2.  Messrs,  Leggett's,  Stacy's,  Green's,  &  Co.'s  business  pros- 

*  In  such  expressions  as  everybody  dse''s  business,  the  possessive  sign  is  removed 
from  the  noun  and  attached  to  the  adjective.  (See  Lesson  124.)  The  possessive  sign 
should  generally  be  placed  immediately  before  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed. 


344  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


pers.  3.  This  was  James's,  Charles's,  and  Robert's  estate.  4.  Amer- 
ica was  discovered  during  Ferdinand's  and  Isabella's  reign.  5.  We 
were  comparing  Caesar  and  Napoleon's  victories.  6.  This  was  the  sage 
and  the  poet's  theme. 

E^xplanation. — If  an  article  precedes  the  possessive,  the  sign  is 
repeated. 

7.  It  was  the  king,  not  the  people's,  choice.  8.  They  are  Thomas, 
as  well  as  James's,  books. 

Caution. — When  a  possessive  noun  is  followed  by  an 
explanatory  word,  the  possessive  sign  is  added  to  the 
explanatory  word  only.  But,  if  the  explanatory  word  has 
several  modifiers,  or  if  there  are  more  explanatory  words 
than  one,  only  the  principal  word  takes  the  sign. 

Remarks. — When  a  common  noun  is  explanatory  of  a  proper  noun, 
and  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  is  omitted,  the  possessive  sign 
may  be  added  either  to  the  modifying  or  to  the  principal  word  ;  as, 
We  stopped  at  Tiffany,  the  jeweler's,  or  We  stopped  at  Tiffany's,  the 
jeweler. 

If  the  name  of  the  thing  possessed  is  given,  the  noun  immediately 
before  it  takes  tlie  sign. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors: — 

1.  This  is  Tennyson's,  the  poet's,  home.  2.  I  took  tea  at  Brown's, 
my  old  friend  and  schoolmate's.  3.  This  belongs  to  Victoria's,  queen 
of  England's,  dominion.  4.  This  province  is  Victoria's,  queen  of  Eng- 
land's. 5.  That  language  is  Homer's,  the  greatest  poet  of  antiquity's. 
6.  This  was  Franklin's  motto,  the  distinguished  philosopher's  and 
statesman's.     7.  Wolsey's,  the  cardinal's,  career  ended  in  disgrace. 

Direction. — Tell  which  of  the  sentences  above  may  he  improved  by 
using  other  forms  to  denote  possession.     (See  the  following  Caution.) 


Construction  of  Possessive  Forms.  245 


Caution. — The  relation  of  possession  may  be  expressed 
not  only  by  ('s)  and  by  of  but  by  the  use  of  such  phrases  as 
belonging  to,  property  of,  etc.  In  constructing  sentences 
•be  careful  to  secure  smoothness  and  clearness  and  variety 
by  taking  advantage  of  these  different  forms. 

Direction. — Improve  the  following  sentences  : — 

1.  This  is  my  wife's  father's  opinion. 

Correction. — This  is  the  opinion  of  my  wife's  father,  or  held  hy 
my  wife's  father. 

2.  This  is  my  wife's  father's  farm.  3.  France's  and  England's 
interest  differs  widely.  4.  Frederick  the  Great  was  the  son  of  the 
•daughter  of  George  I.  of  England.  5.  My  brother's  wife's  sister's 
•drawings  have  been  much  admired.  6.  The  drawings  of  the  sister  of 
the  wife  of  my  brother  have  been  much  admired. 

Of  is  not  always  equivalent  to  the  {'s). 
Explanation. — The  president's  reception  means  the  reception  given 
Tt)y  the  president,  but  the  reception  of  the  president  means  the  recep- 
tion given  to  the  president. 

Direction. — Construct  sentences  illustrating  the  meaning  of  the 
following  expressions  : — 

A  mother's  love,  the  love  of  a  mother  ;  a  father's  care,  the  care  of 
A  father  ;  my  friend's  picture,  a  picture  of  my  friend. 

Caution. — Often  ambiguity  may  be  prevented  by 
changing  the  assumed  subject  of  a  participle  from  a 
nominative  or  an  objective  to  a  possessive. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors: — 

1.  The  writer  being  a  scholar  is  not  doubted. 

•Correction. — This  is  ambiguous,  as  it  may  mean  either  that  the 


246 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


■writer  is  not  doubted  because  he  is  a  scholar,  or  that  the  writer's 
scholarship  is  not  doubted.  It  should  be,  The  writer's  being  *  a 
scholar  is  not  doubted,  or  That  the  writer  is  a  scholar  is  not  doubted. 

2.  I  have  no  doubt  of  the  writer  being  a  scholar.  3.  No  one  ever 
heard  of  that  man  running  for  office.  4.  Brown  being  a  politician 
prevented  his  election.  5.  I  do  not  doubt  him  being  sincere.  6. 
Grouchy  being  behind  time  decided  the  fate  of  Waterloo. 


LESSON     124. 

NUMBER    AND    CASE    FORMS. 

Declension. 

DEFINITION".— Dcc/cnstow.  is  the  arrangement  of  the  cases 
of  nouns  and  pronouns  in  the  two  numbers. 

Direction. — Learn  the  following  declensions : — 
Declension   of   Nouns. 


LADY. 

Singular.  Plural. 

Nom.  lady,  ladies, 

Pos.     lady's,  ladies', 

Ohj,      lady ;  ladies. 


BOY. 

Singular.  Plural. 

boy,  boys, 

boy's,  boys', 

boy  ;  boys. 


MAN. 

Singular.  Plural. 

man,  men, 

man's,  men's, 
man  ;        men. 


♦  The  participle  may  be  modified  not  only,  as  here,  by  a  noun  in  the  possessive  but 
by  the  articles  a  and  ihe—SLB  said  in  Lesson  37.  Whether  it  be  the  imposing  a  tax  or 
the  issuing  a  paper  curren^.—Bagefiot.  Not  a  making  war  on  them,  not  a  leaving 
them  out  of  mind,  but  the  putting  a  new  construction  upon  them,  the  taking  them 
from  under  the  old  conventional  point  of  view.— Matthew  Arnold.  Poltroonery  is  the 
ackfuywledging  an  infirmity  to  be  incurable. — Emerson.  The  giving  away  a  man's 
money.— Burke.  It  is  not  the  finding  of  a  thing  but  the  making  something  out  of  it, 
after  it  is  found,  that  is  of  consequence.— Zowe?^ 

As  seen  in  this  last  quotation,  the  participle  may  be  followed  by  a  preposition  and 
60  become  a  pure  noun  (Ijesson  38). 


Number  and  Case  Forms. 


247 


Declension    of    Pronouns. 

PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 


FIRST   PERSON. 


Singular.     Plural. 
Nom.  I,  we,* 

^      (  my  or     our  or 
Pos.  \     .       . 

(  mine,f    ours, 

Obj.     rae  ;        us. 


SECOND   PERSON— 

SECOND   PERSON — 

common 

form. 

old  form. 

Singular. 

Plural. 

Singular.      Plural. 

you, 

you. 

thou,       ye  X  or  you. 

your  or 

your  or 

thy  or     your  or 

yours, 

yours. 

thine,      yours. 

you; 

you. 

thee  ;      you. 

*  Strictly  speaking,  toe  can  hardly  be  the  plural  of  j;  says  Professor  Sweet,  for  / 
does  not  admit  of  plurality.  We  means  /  and  ymi,  I  and  he,  I  and  sJie,  or  /  and 
they,  etc. 

t  The  forms  mine,  ours,  yours,  thine,  hers,  and  theirs  are  used  only  when  the  name 
of  the  thing  possessed  is  omitted  ;  as,  Yours  is  old,  mine  is  new  =  Y&ur  book  is  old, 
etc.  Mine  and  thine  were  formerly  used  before  words  beginning  with  a  vowel  sound  ; 
as,  thine  enemy,  mine  Jimior. 

The  expression  a  friend  of  mine  presents  a  peculiar  construction.  The  explanation 
generally  given  is,  that  of  is  partitive,  and  that  the  expression  is  equivalent  to  one 
friend  of  my  friends. 

It  is  said  that  this  construction  can  be  used  only  when  more  than  one  thing  is 
possessed ;  but  such  expressions  as  This  heai^t  of  mine.  That  temper  of  yours  are 
good,  idiomatic  English.  This  naughty  world  of  ours^ — Byron.  This  moral  life  of 
mine.— Sheridan  Knowles.    Dim  are  those  heads  of  theirs.— Carlyle. 

Some  suggest  that  the  word  possessing  or  owning  is  understood  after  these  posscss- 
ives ;  as,  This  temper  of  yours  (your  possessing) ;  others  say  that  of  simply  marks 
identity,  as  does  of  in  city  of  (=  viz.)  New  York  (see  Lesson  34).  They  would  make 
the  expression  =  This  temper,  your  temper. 

The  s  in  ours,  yours,  hers,  and  theirs  is  the  s  of  his  and  its  extended  by  analogy  to 
our,  your,  her,  and  their,  fortns  already  possessive.  Ours,  yours,  hers,  and  theirs  are 
consequently  double  possessives. 

X  Ye  is  used  in  Chaucer  and  in  the  King  James  version  of  the  Bible  exclusively  in 
the  nominative,  as  was  its  original  gl  in  the  Saxon.  Shakespeare  uses  you  in  the  nom- 
inative. You  (the  Saxon  dative  low)  has  now  taken  the  place  of  ye,  and  is  both 
nominative  and  objective. 


248 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


THIRD  PERSON — MaS. 

Singular,     Plural. 
JVom.  he, 

I*os.     his, 

ObJ.     him 


they, 
their  or 
theirs, 
them. 


THIRD  PERSON — Feni. 
Singular.     Plural. 
she,  they, 

her  or        their  or 
hers,  theirs, 

her ;  them. 


THIRD   PERSON — Neut. 

Singular.     Plural. 


it, 
its, 
it; 


they, 
their  or 
theirs, 
them. 


COMPOUND   PERSONAL   PRONOUNS. 


Singular.      Plural. 

Nom.  and       Nom.  and 

Obj.  Obj. 

tnyself f  or 
ourself  ; 


Singular. 
Nom.  and 


Plural. 

Nom.  and 

Olo- 


ourselves. 


•thyself  or )  ,  himself  ;  \ 

•'  ♦      .     f.  yourselves.    .        _     / 

yourself  ;  )  herself  ;  V 

itself  :      ) 


Singular. 
Nom.  and 

Obj. 
himself 
herself 
itself 


Plural. 

Nom.  and 
Oto. 

them- 
selves. 


Remark. — The  possessive  of  these  pronouns  is  wanting. 

Ourself  and  we  are  used  by  rulers,  editors,  and  others  to  hide  their 
individuality,  and  give  authority  to  what  they  say. 


*  The  possessive  its  is  our  only  personal  pronoun  form  not  found  in  Saxon.  His, 
the  possessive  of  the  masculine  hi,  was  there  the  possessive  (genitive)  of  the  neuter  hit 
also — our  it.  But  it  came  to  be  thought  improper  to  employ  his  to  denote  inanimate 
things  as  well  as  animate.  The  literature  of  the  16th  and  17th  centuries  shows  a  grow- 
ing sense  of  this  impropriety,  and  abounds  with  of  it,  thereof,  her,  it,  the,  and  it  own 
in  place  of  his  as  the  possessive  of  it.  The  first  appearance  of  the  new  coinage  its  is 
placed  in  1598.  Long  after  its  introduction  many  looked  askance  at  its,  because  of  the 
■grammatical  blunder  it  contains—the  t  in  its  being  a  nominative  neuter  ending,  and 
the  s  a  possessive  ending.  But  no  one  thinks  now  of  shunning  what  was  then 
regarded  as  a  grammatical  monstrosity. 

t  The  compound  personal  pronouns  are  used  (1)  for  emphasis  ;  as,  I  myself  saw  it ; 
and  (2;»  as  reflexives,  to  turn  the  action  of  the  verb  back  upon  the  actor  ;  as,  He  found 
himself  deserted  by  his  friends.  They  are  not  the  only  words  used  in  this  last  rela- 
tion ;  where  no  obscurity  would  arise,  we  may  use  the  simple  personal  pronouns 
instead.  And  millions  in  those  solitudes  .  .  .  have  laid  them  down  in  their  last 
fileep.— .Sryaw^    My  uncle  stopped  a  minute  to  look  about  him.— Dickens. 

The  compound  personal  pronouns  should  not  be  used  as  subjects. 


Number  and  Case  Forms.  249 


Relative    Pronouns. 

Sing,  and  Plu.      Sing,  and  Flu.     Sing,  and  Flu.  Sing,  and  Flu. 
Nom.  who,                  which,                    that,  what, 

Fo8.    whose,  whose,  ,  , 

Ohj.  •  whom.  which.  that.  what. 

Remark.— From  the  composition  of  which — hwa-\\Q,  or  hwrnt-lic  — 
who-like,  or  what-like,  it  is  evident  that  whose  is  not  formed  from 
which.     It  is,  in  fact,  the  possessive  of  what  transferred  to  which. 

Much  has  been  said  against  this  whose,  but  it  is  in  general  use. 
Those  who  regard  usage  as  the  final  arbiter  in  speech  need  not  avoid 
this  form  of  the  pronoun. 

Interrogative  Pronouns. 

The  interrogative  pronouns  who,  which,  and  what  are 
declined  like  the  relatives  who,  which,  and  what. 

Compound  Relative  Pronouns. 

Singular  and  Fiural.  Singular  and  Flural. 

Nam.  whoever,  whosoever, 

Fos.     whosever,  whosesoever, 

Ohj.     whomever.  whomsoever. 

Whichever,  luhichsoever,  whatever,  and  whatsoever  do 
not  change  their  form. 

Adjective  Pronouns. 

This  and  that  with  their  plurals,  these  and  those,  have 
no  possessive  form,  and  are  alike  in  the  nominative  and 
the  objective.  One  and  other  are  declined  like  nouns ; 
and  another,  declined  like  other  in  the  singular,  has  no 
plural.  Either,  neither,  former,  and  latter  sometimes 
take  the  apostrophe   and   s  {'s)  in  the   singular.      Each, 


250  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


eitlier,  and  neither  are  always  singular;  both  is  always 
plural  ;  and  all,  any,  former,  latter,  none,  same,  some,  and 
siich  are  either  singular  or  plural.* 

*  On  the  pages  immediately  preceding  Lesson  1,  we  eaid  that  usage,  as  deter- 
mined by  the  majority  of  the  best  writers  and  epealieis  of  tlie  generation,  is  the  only 
authority  in  language  ;  and  we  there  explained  how  we  are  able  to  appeal  to  usage  as 
we  all  along  have  done.  In  treating  of  the  adjective  pronouns  we  now  appeal  to  it 
again.  In  the  first  twelve  paragraphs  below  we  give  alternative  expressions.  Only  the 
second  of  these  alternative  locutions  in  each  paragraph  is  allowed  by  many  grammari- 
ans ;  they  utterly  condemn  the  first.  On  the  warrant  of  usage  we  say  that  both  expres- 
sions are  correct. 

1.  We  may  use  each  other  with  more  than  two  ;  we  may  use  one  another  in  such 
a  case.  We  may  say,  "  Several  able  men  were  in  correspondence  with  each  other,'"  or 
"with  one  another.'''' 

2.  We  may  use  one  another  with  only  two  ;  we  may  use  each  other  in  such  a  case. 
We  may  say,  "  The  two  countries  agreed  to  stand  by  one  another,''''  or  "  by  each  other.'''' 

3.  We  may  use  all,  both,  and  whole  with  a  preposition  and  a  noun  following  ; 
we  may  use  these  words  as  adjectives  qualifying  the  noun.  We  may  say,  "  All  of  the 
people,''''  "  Both  of  the  trees ^''  "  The  whole  of  the  farm,''''  or  "  All  the  people,'"  "  Both 
trees, ''^  "  The  lohole  farm.''^ 

4.  We  may  use  the  pronouns  either  and  neither,  as  we  do  the  conjunctions  either 
and  neither,  with  more  than  two  ;  we  may  use  any  one  and  none  in  such  cases.  We 
may  say,  "  Here  are  three  candidates  ;  you  may  vote  for  either  or  for  neither  of  them," 
or  "  for  any  one  or  for  none  of  them." 

5.  We  may  use  he  or  some  other  personal  pronoun  after  the  indefinite  one  ;  we  may 
repeat  the  one  in  such  a  case.  We  may  say,  "The  home  one  must  quit,  yet  taking 
much  of  its  life  along  with  him,''''  or  "  along  with  one." 

6.  We  may  use  such  before  an  adjective  and  its  noun ;  we  may  use  so  with  the 
adjective  in  such  a  case.  We  may  say,  "  Sitch  a  strong  argument,^''  "  Such  admirable 
taient,'"  or  "  So  strong  an  argument,''''  "  Talent  so  admirable.'''' 

7.  We  may  use  the  plural  ones  ;  we  may  use  the  noun  for  which  ones  stands.  We 
may  say,  '*  You  have  red  roses,  I  have  white  ones,''''  or  "  white  roses.''"' 

8.  We  may  apply  the  other  two  to  those  that  remain  when  one  of  three  things 
has  been  taken  from  the  rest ;  we  may  use  the  two  others  in  such  a  case.  We  may  say, 
*'  One  of  them  kept  his  ground,  the  other  two  ran  away,"  or  "  the  two  others  ran  away." 

9.  We  may  use  a  before  a  noun  in  the  singular  and  or  two  after  it ;  we  may  use  one 


Case  Forms— Pronouns.  251 


Descriptive  adjectives  used  as  nouns  are  plural,  and 
are  not  declined.  Such  expressions  as  '^  the  lor etched' s 
only  plea''  and  '^the  wicked's  den''  are  exceptional. 


LESSON     12  5. 

CASE    FORMS-PRONOUNS. 

The  pronouns  /,  thou,  he,  she,  and  who  are  the  only 
words  in  the  language  that  have  each  three  different  case 
forms. 

Direction. — Study  the  Declensions,  and  correct  these  errors : — 
Our's,  your's,  hi's,  lier's,  it's,  their's,  yourn,  hisn,  hern,  theirn. 

or  two  before  the  noun  in  the  plural.    We  may  say,  "  I  will  go  in  a  day  or  tivo,'"'  or  "  ia 
one  or  two  days.'" 

10.  We  may  use  either  in  the  sense  of  each  ;  wc  may  use  each  instead.  We  may 
say,  "  He  wrested  the  land  on  either  side  of  the  Seine,"  or  "  on  each  side  of  the  Seine." 

11.  We  may  insert  a  noun,  or  a  noun  and  other  words,  between  other  and  than  ; 
we  may  place  the  than  immediately  after  other.  We  may  say,  "  We  must  look  for 
6ome  other  reasons  for  it  than  those  suggested,"  or  "for  some  reasons  for  it  other 
than  those  suggested." 

12.  We  may  use  none  in  the  plural ;  we  may  use  none  in  the  singular.  We  may  say, 
"  None  hear  thy  voice,"  or  "  None  hears  thy  voice." 

The  paragraphs  below  contain  noteworthy  uses  of  adjective  pronouns  but  no  really 
alternative  expressions. 

13.  Usage  is  overwhelmingly  in  favor  of  any  one  else's,  iio  one  else's,  some- 
body else's,  nobody  else's,  instead  of  any  one's  else,  etc.  There  is  scarcely  any 
authority  for  placing  the  ('«)  upon  one  or  body.  "  Written  by  Dickens  for  his  own 
or  any  one  else's  children."  This  form  is  common  and  convenient.  We  are  advised 
to  shun  it,  but  we  need  not. 

14.  Usage  is  also  decidedly  in  favor  of  first  two,  last  three,  etc.,  instead  of  two 
first.,  three  last,  etc. 


252  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Construction  of  Case  Forms— Pronouns, 
Caution. — I,  we,  thou,  ye,  he,  she,  they,  and  who 
are  nominative  forms,  and  must  not  be  used  in  the  ob- 
jective case.  Me,  us,  thee,  him,  her,*  them,  and 
whom  are  objective  forms,  and  must  not  be  used  in 
the  nominative  case. 

Remark. — The  eight  nominative  forms  and  the  seven  objective 
forms  here  given  are  the  only  distinctive  nominative  and  objective 
forms  in  the  language.  All  the  rules  of  syntax  given  in  the  grammars 
to  guide  in  the  use  of  the  nominative  and  the  objective  case  apply, 
practically,  only  to  these  fifteen  words. 

Direction. — Study  carefully  the  Definitions  and  principles  given 
tinder  the  head  of  case,  Lesson  119,  and  then  correct  these  errors, 
giving  your  reasons  in  every  instance: — 

1.  It  is  not  me  f  you  are  in  love  with.  2.  She  was  neither  better 
bred  nor  wiser  than  you  or  me.f    3.  Who  f  servest  thou  under  ?    4.  It 

*  Her  is  also  a  possessive. 

t  Dr.  Latham  defends  It  is  me,  but  condemns  It  is  him  and  It  is  her.  Dean  Alford 
regards  as  correct  the  forms  condemned  by  Latham,  and  asserts  that  thee  and  me  are 
correct  in,  "  The  nations  not  so  blest  as  thee,''''  "  Such  weak  minister  as  me  may  the 
oppressor  bruise."  Professor  Bain  justifies  1/  I  were  him.  It  was  her.  He  is  better 
than  me,  and  even  defends  the  use  of  wfio  as  an  objective  form  by  quoting  from 
Shakespeare,  "  Whx)  servest  thou  under  ?  "  and  from  Steele,  "  Who  should  I  meet  ?" 

They  justify  such  expressions  as  It  is  me  from  the  analogy  of  the  French  c'est  moi, 
and  on  the  ground  that  they  are  "  more  frequently  heard  than  the  prescribed  form." 
But  such  analogy  would  justify  It  are  them  (ce  sont  eux)  ;  and,  if  the  argument  from 
the  speech  of  the  uneducated  is  to  have  weight,  we  have  good  authority  for  "  Her  ain't 
a,  calling  we  ;  us  dori't  belong  to  she.'"  A  course  of  reading  will  satisfy  one  that 
the  best  writers  and  speakers  in  England  are  not  in  the  habit  of  using  such  expressions 
as  It  is  me,  and  that  these  are  almost,  if  not  quite,  unknown  in  American  literature. 
1^0  one  has  so  freed  himself  from  the  influence  of  early  associations  that  in  a  careless 


Case  Forms— Pronouns.  253 


was  not  them,  it  was  her.  5.  Its  being  me  should  make  no  difference. 
6.  Him  and  rae  are  of  the  same  age.  7.  Them  that  study  grammar 
talk  no  better  than  me.  8.  I  am  not  so  old  as  her  ;  she  is  older  than 
me  by  ten  years.  9.  He  was  angry,  and  me  too.  10.  Who  will  go  ? 
Me.  11.  It  isn't  for  such  as  us  to  sit  with  the  rulers  of  the  land.  12, 
Not  one  in  a  thousand  could  have  done  it  as  well  as  him.  13.  Him 
being  a  stranger,  they  easily  misled  him.  14.  Oh,  happy  us  !  sur- 
rounded thus  with  blessings.  15.  It  was  Joseph,  him  whom  Pharaoh 
promoted.  16.  I  referred  to  my  old  friend,  he  of  whom  I  so  often 
speak.  17.  You  have  seen  Cassio  and  she  together.  18.  Between  you 
and  I,  I  believe  that  he  is  losing  his  mind.  19.  Who  should  I  meet 
the  other  day  but  ray  old  friend  ?  20.  Whd  did  he  refer  to,  he  or  I  ? 
21.  Who  did  he  choose  ?  Did  he  choose  you  and  I  ?  22.  He  that  is 
idle  and  mischievous  reprove.  23.  We  will  refer  it  to  whoever  you 
may  choose.  24.  Whosoever  the  court  favors  is  safe.  25.  They  that 
are  diligent  I  will  reward.  26.  Scotland  and  thee  did  in  each  other 
live.  27.  My  hour  is  come,  but  not  to  render  up  my  soul  to  such  as- 
thee.  28.  I  knew  that  it  was  him.  29.  I  knew  it  to  be  he.  30.  Who 
did  you  suppose  it  to  be  ?  31.  Whom  did  you  suppose  it  was  ?  32.  I 
took  that  tall  man  to  be  he.     33.  I  thought  that  tall  man  was  him. 

moment  some  vicious  colloquialism  may  not  creep  into  his  discourse.  A  violation  of 
every  principle  of  grammar  may  be  defended,  if  such  inadvertencies  are  to  be  erected 
into  authority.  To  whatever  is  the  prevailing,  the  habitual,  usage  of  a  majority  of  the 
best  writers  and  speakers  the  grammarian  should  bow  without  question  ;  but  not  to 
the  accidental  slips  of  even  the  greatest  writers,  or  to  the  common  usage  of  the  unre- 
flecting and  the  uncultivated. 

Although  than  is  not  a  proposition,  it  is  sometimes  followed  by  wJwm,  as  in  the 
familiar  passage  from  Milton  :  "  Beelzebub  .  .  .  than  wJwm,  Satan  except,  none 
higher  sat"  Than  whxym  is  an  irregularity  justified  only  on  the  basis  of  good  usage. 
Whom,  here  may  be  parsed  ae  an  objective  case  form  used  idiomatically  in  place 
of  whjo. 


264  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


LESSON     12  6. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    CASE    FORIVIS. 

MISCELLANEOUS — REVIEW. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors,  and  give  your  reasons : — 
1.  Who  was  Joseph's  and  Benjamin's  mother  ?  2.  It  did  not  occur 
during  Washington,  Jefferson,  or  Adams's  administration.  3.  I  con- 
sulted Webster,  Worcester,  and  Walker's  dictionary.  4.  This  state 
was  south  of  Mason's  and  Dixon's  line.  5.  These  are  neither  George 
nor  Fanny's  books.  C.  Howard's,  the  philanthropist's,  life  was  a 
noble  one.  7.  It  is  Othello's  pleasure,  our  noble  and  valiant  general's. 
8.  He  visited  his  sons-in-law's  homes. 

Explanation. — If  the  possessive  plural  of  such  nouns  were  used, 
this  would  be  correct  ;  but  it  is  better  to  avoid  these  awkward  forms. 

9.  A  valuable  horse  of  my  friend  William's  father's  was  killed.  10. 
For  Herodias's  sake,  his  brother  Philip's  wife.  11.  For  the  queen's 
sake,  his  sister's.  12.  Peter's,  John's,  and  Andrew's  occupation  was 
that  of  fishermen.  13.  He  spoke  of  you  studying  Latin.  14.  It  being 
difficult  did  not  deter  him.  15.  What  need  is  there  of  the  man  swear- 
ing ?  16.  I  am  opposed  to  the  gentleman  speaking  again.  17.  He 
thought  it  was  us.  18.  We  shall  shortly  see  which  is  the  fittest  object 
of  scorn,  you  or  me.  19.  I  shall  not  learn  my  duty  from  such  as  thee. 
20.  A  lady  entered,  whom  I  afterwards  found  was  Miss  B.  21.  A 
lady  entered,  who  I  afterwards  found  to  be  Miss  B.  22.  Ask  some- 
body's else  opinion.  23.  Let  him  be  whom  he  may.  24.  I  am  sure  it 
could  not  have  been  them.  25.  I  understood  it  to  be  they.  26.  It  is 
not  him  whom  you  thought  it  was.  27.  Let  you  and  I  try  it.  28.  All 
enjoyed  themselves,  us  excepted.  29.  Us  boys  enjoy  the  holidays. 
30.  It  was  Virgil,  him  who  wrote  the  "-^neid."  31.  He  asked  help  of 
men  whom  he  knew  could  not  help  him. 


General  Review. 


255 


GENERAL   REVIEW. 

To  THE  Teacher.— These  schemes  and  questions  under  the  head  of  General  Review 
are  especially  designed  to  aid  in  securing  an  outline  of  technical  grammar. 

The  questions  given  below  may  be  made  to  call  for  minute  details  or  only  for  out- 
lines.   In  some  cases  a  single  question  may  suffice  for  a  whole  lesson. 

Scheme  for  the  Noun. 

(2%e  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 
Subject  (4,  8). 


NOUN. 


Uses.' 


Classes. 


Modifications. 


Object  Complement  (28). 

Attribute  Complement  (29,  30). 

Objective  Comjjlement  (31). 

Adjective  Modifier  (33). 

Adverb  Modifier  (35). 

Principal  word  in  Prep.  Phrase  (17). 

Independen-t  (44). 

Common  (85). 

(Abstract  and  Collective.) 

Proper  (85). 

w«,v,w    j  Singular  (112-116). 
Number,  j  p^^^.^^  (112-116). 


Gender. 


Person. 


Case. 


(M 

(N 


(112- 

Masculine  (117,  118). 
"eminine  (117,  118). 
Neuter  (117,  118). 


(  First  (119). 
\  Second  (119). 
(  Third  (119). 

!  Nominative  (119). 
Possessive  (119,  122,  123). 
Objective  (119). 


Questions  on  the  Noun. 

1.  Define  the  noun  and  its  classes. — Lesson  85. 

2.  Name  and  define  the  modifications  of  the  nouri.^ — Lessons  112, 
117,  119. 

3.  Name  and  define  the  several  numbers,  genders^  persons,  and 
cases.— Lessons  112,  117,  119.  •     .. 


256  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


4.  Give  and  illustrate  the  several  ways  of  forming  the  plural. — 
Lessons  112,  113,  114. 

5.  Give  and  illustrate  the  several  ways  of  distinguishing  the  gen- 
ders.— Lesson  117. 

6.  How  is  the  possessive  case  formed  ? — Lesson  122. 

7.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of 
the  possessive  forms. — Lesson  128. 

Scheme  for  the  Pronoun. 

Uses. — Same  as  those  of  the  Noun. 

r  Personal  (85,-  86,  87). 
^,  J  Relative  (85,  86,  87). 

PRONOUN.   ^   Classes.  <  interrogative  (85). 

t  Adjective  (85,  87). 

Modifications. — Same  as  those  of  the  Noun  (112, 
t  117,  118,  119,  124,  125,  142). 

Questions  on  the  Pronoun. 

1.  Define  the  pronoun  and  its  classes,  and  give  the  lists. — Lesson  85. 

2.  Decline  the  several  pronouns. — Lesson  124, 

3.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  the 
different  pronouns. — Lessons  86,  87. 

4.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  the 
number  forms,  the  gender  forms,  and  the  case  forms, — Lessons  118, 
125,  142. 


LESSON     12  7. 

COMPARISON. 

Introductory  Hints. — That  apple  is  sweet,  that  other  is  sweeter, 
but  this  one  is  the  sweetest.  The  adjective  sweet,  expressing  a  quality 
of  the  three  apples,  is,  as  you  see,  inflected  by  adding  er  and  est. 

Adjectives,  then,  have  one  modification,  and  this  is  marked  by 
form,  or  inflection.     This  modification  is  called  Comparison,  because 


Comparison.  257 


it  is  used  when  things  are  compared  with  one  another  in  respect  to 
some  quality  common  to  them  all,  but  possessed  by  them  in  different 
degrees.  The  form  of  the  adjective  which  expresses  the  simple  qual- 
ity, as  sweet,  is  of  the  Positive  Degree ;  that  which  expresses  the 
quality  in  a  greater  or  a  less  degree,  as  sweeter,  less  sweet,  is  of  the 
Comparative  Degree  ;  and  that  which  expresses  the  quality  in  the 
greatest  or  the  least  degree,  as  sweetest,  least  sweet,  is  of  the  Superla- 
tive Degree. 

But  even  the  positive  implies  a  comparison  ;  we  should  not  say, 
This  apple  is  sweet,  unless  this  particular  fruit  had  more  of  the  qual- 
ity than  ordinary  apples  possess. 

Notice,  too,  that  the  adjective  in  the  comparative  and  superlative 
degrees  always  expresses  the  quality  relatively.  When  we  say,  This 
apple  is  sweeter  than  that,  or.  This  apple  is  the  sweetest  of  the  three, 
■we  do  not  mean  that  any  one  of  the  apples  is  very  sweet,  but  only 
that  one  apple  is  sweeter  than  the  other,  or  the  sweetest  of  those 
compared. 

The  several  degrees  of  the  quality  expressed  by  the  adjective  may 
be  increased  or  diminished  by  adverbs  modifying  the  adjective.  We 
can  say  very,  exceedingly,  rather,  or  somewhat  sweet  ;  far,  still,  or 
much  sweeter  ;  hy  far  or  much  the  sweetest. 

Some  adverbs,  as  well  as  adjectives,  are  compared. 

Adjectives  have  one  modification  ;  viz.,  ComparisoD.* 

DEFINITIONS. 

Comparison  is  a  modification  of  the  adjective  (or  the 
adverb)  to  express  the  relative  degree  of  the  quality  f  in  the 
things  compared. 

The  Positive  Degree  expresses  the  simple  quality. 

*  Two  adjectives,  this  and  that,  have  number  forms— ^Ai*,  these ;  that,  those.    In 
Anglo-Saxon  and  Latin,  adjectives  have  forms  to  indicate  gender,  number,  and  case, 
t  Different  degrees  of  quantity,  also,  may  sometimes  be  expressed  by  comparison. 
17 


258  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  Comparative  Degree  expresses  a  greater  or  a  less 
degree  of  the  quality. 

The  Superlative  Degree  expresses  the  greatest  or  the  least 
degree  of  the  quality. 

RULE.— Adjectives  are  regularly  compared  by  adding  er  to 
the  positive  to  form  the  comparative,  and  est  to  the  positive  to 
form  the  superlative. 

RULES    FOR    SPELLING. 

RULE  I.— Final  e  is  dropped  before  a  suffix  beginning  with 
a  vowel ;  sl^^  fine,  finer ;  love,  loving. 

Exceptions. — The  e  is  retained.  (1)  after  c  and  g  when  the  suffix 
begins  with  a  ov  o  ;  as,  peaceable,  changeable  ;  (2)  after  o  ;  as,  hoeing  ; 
and  (3)  when  it  is  needed  to  preserve  the  identity  of  the  word  ;  as, 
singeing,  dyeing. 

RULE  1\.—Y  after  a  consonant  becomes  i  before  a  suffix 
not  beginning  with  i;  as,  witty,  wittier;  dry,  dried. 

Exceptions. —  Y  does  not  change  before  's,  nor  in  forming  the 
plural  of  proper  nouns  ;  as,  lady's,  the  Marys,  the  Henrys. 

RULE  III.— In  monosyllables  and  words  accented  on  the 
last  syllable,  a  final  consonant  after  a  single  vowel  doubles 
before  a  suffix  beginning  with  a  vowel;  as,  hot,  hotter;  begin. 


Exceptions. — X,  h  and  v  are  never  doubled,  and  gas  has  gases  in 
the  plural. 

Adjectives  of  more  than  two  syllables  are  generally 
compared  by  prefixing  more  and  most.  This  method  is 
often  used  with  adjectives  of  two  syllables  and  sometimes 
with  those  of  one. 


Comparison.  259 


Remark. — More  beautiful,  most  beautiful,  etc.  can  hardly  be 
called  degree  forms  of  the  adjective.  The  adverbs  more  and  most 
have  the  degree  forms,  and  in  parsing  they  may  be  regarded  as  sepa- 
rate words.  The  adjective,  however,  is  varied  in  sense  the  same  as 
when  the  inflections  er  and  est  are  added. 

Degrees  of  diminution  are  expressed  by  prefixing  less 
and  least* ;  as,  valuable,  less  valuable,  least  valuable. 

Most  definitive  and  many  descriptive  adjectives  cannot 
be  compared,  as  their  meaning  will  not  admit  of  different 
degrees. 

Direction. — From  this  list  of  adjectives  select  those  that  cannot  be 
compared,  and  compare  those  that  remain  : — 

Observe  the  Rules  for  Spelling  given  above. 

Wooden,  English,  unwelcome,  physical,  one,  that,  common,  hand- 
some, happy,  able,  polite,  hot,  sweet,  vertical,  two-wheeled,  infinite, 
witty,  humble,  any,  thin,  intemperate,  undeviating,  nimble,  holy, 
lunar,  superior. 

Of  the  two  forms  of  comparison,  that  which  is  more 
easily  pronounced  and  more  agreeable  to  the  ear  is  to  be 
preferred. 

*  This  use  of  an  adverb  to  form  the  comparison  was  borrowed  from  the  Norman- 
Prench.  But  note  how  the  adverb  is  compared.  The  Saxon  superlative  ending  st  is 
in  most  and  least ;  and  the  Saxon  comparative  ending  s,  unchanged  to  r,  is  the  last 
letter  in  less— ch&nged  to  r,  as  it  regularly  was,  in  coming  into  English,  it  is  the  r  in 
more. 

When  it  was  forgotten  that  less  is  a  comparative,  er  was  added,  and  we  have  the 
double  comparative  lesser— in  use  to-day. 

After  the  French  method  of  comparing  was  introduced  into  English,  both  methods 
were  often  used  with  the  same  adjective  ;  and,  for  a  time,  double  comparatives  and 
double  superlatives  were  common ;  as,  worser,  most  boldest. 

In  "King  Lear"  Shakespeare  uses  the  double  comparative  a  dozen  times. 


260 


Modifications  of  thie  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. — Correct  the  following  : — 

Famousest,  virtuousest,  eloquenter,  comfortabler,  amusingest. 

Some  adverbs  are  compared  by  adding  er  and  est,  and 
some  by  prefixing  more  and  most. 

Direction. — Compare  the  following : — 

Early,  easily,  fast,  firmly,  foolishly,  late,  long,  often,  soon,  wisely. 

Some  adjectives  and  adverbs  are  irregular  in  their  com- 
parison. 

Direction. — Learn  to  compare  the  following  adjectives  and  ad- 
verbs : — 

Adjectives  Irregularly  Compared. 


Pos. 
(Aft),* 

Bad,  \ 
Evil,  [ 
111,       ) 


Comp. 
after, 


Far, 

farther. 

Fore, 

former. 

(Forth), 

further, 

Good, 

better. 

Hind, 

hinder, 

(In), 

inner, 

Late, 

j  later  or 

Superlative. 
S  aftmost  or 
\  aftermost. 

worst. 

farthest  or 

farthermost. 
( foremost  or 
1  first. 

j  furthest  or 
\  furthermost. 

best. 

^  hindmost  or 
\  hindermost. 

inmost  or 

innermost. 

latest  or 

last. 


Pos.  Comp. 

^  .^,.  .  \  less  or 
^'"'^•t  (lesser, 
Many  or 
Much, 


Near, 
Old, 

(Out), 
Under, 

(Up), 

Top, 


more, 
nearer, 


Superlative. 
least. 

most. 


(  older  or 
I  elder, 


(  nearest  or 
i  next. 
j  oldest  or 
(  eldest, 
f  outmost  or 
j  outer  or  J  outermost  ; 
i  utter,        j  utmost  or 
I  uttermost. 

,  undermost. 

upmost  or 

uppermost. 

topmost. 


upper. 


*  The  words  inclosed  in  curves  are  adverbs— the  adjectives  following  having  no 
positive  form. 

t  For  the  comparative  and  the  superlative  of  little,  in  the  sense  of  small  in  size, 
emaUer  and  smallest  are  substituted  ;  aa,  Utile  boy,  smaller  boy,  smallest  boy. 


Construction  of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives.      261 


Adverbs  Irregularly  Compared. 

P08. 

Comp. 

Superlative. 

Pos. 

Comp. 

Superlative 

Badly,  I 
111,        S 

worse, 

worst. 

Little, 
Much, 

less, 
more. 

least, 
most. 

Far, 

farther. 

farthest. 

Well, 

better. 

*      best. 

Forth, 

further. 

furthest. 

To  THE  Teacher.— We  give  below  a  model  for  writing  the  parsing  of  adjectives. 
A  similar  form  may  be  used  for  adverbs. 

Exercises  for  the  parsing  of  adjectives  and  adverbs  may  be  selected  from  Lessons 
12,  14,  29,  30,  31,  44,  46,  47,  48,  60,  63,  64,  65. 

Model  for  Written  Parsing. — All  the  dewy  glades  are  still. 


CLASSiriCATION. 


Adjectives. 
All 
the 
dewy 
8tiU 


Kind. 
Def. 

Des. 


MODIFICATION. 


Deg.  of  Comp. 
Pos. 


Modifer  of  glades. 

(t        t(        (i 
Completes  are  and  modifies  glades. 


LESSON     128. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    COMPARATIVES    AND 
SUPERLATIVES. 

Caution. — In  stating  a  comparison  avoid  comparing  a 
thing  with  itself.* 

Remark. — The  comparative  degree  refers  to  two  things  (or  sets  of 
things)  as  distinct  from  each  other,  and  implies  that  one  has  more  of 
the  quality  than  the  other.  The  comparative  degree  is  generally- 
followed  by  than.\ 

*  A  thing  may,  of  course,  be  compared  with  itself  as  existing  under  different 
conditions  ;  as.  The  star  is  brighter'  to-night ;  The  grass  is  greener  to-day. 

+  The  comparative  is  generally  used  with  reference  to  two  things  only,  but  it  may 
be  used  to  compare  one  thing  with  a  number  of  things  taken  separately  or  together  ; 
as,  He  is  no  better  than  other  men ;  It  contains  more  than  cUl  the  others  combined. 


Modifications  of  tlie  Parts  of  Speech. 


Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Remark,  and  correct  these 
errors : — 

1.  London  is  larger  than  any  city  in  Europe. 

■Correction. — The  second  term  of  comparison,  any  city  in  Europe, 
includes  London,  and  so  London  is  represented  as  being  larger  than 
itself.  It  should  be,  London  is  larger  than  any  other  city  in 
Europe,  or,  London  is  the  largest  city  in  Europe. 

2.  China  has  a  greater  population  than  any  nation  on  the  globe.  3. 
I  like  this  book  better  than  any  book  I  have  seen.  4,  There  is  no 
metal  so  useful  as  iron. 

(A  comparison  is  here  stated,  although  no  degree  form  is 
employed.) 

5.  All  the  metals  are  less  useful  than  iron.  6.  Time  ought,  above 
all  kinds  of  property,  to  be  free  from  invasion. 

Caution. — In  using  the  superlative  degree  be  careful 
to  make  the  latter  term  of  the  comparison,  or  the  term 
introduced  by  of,   include  the  former. 

Remarks. — The  superlative  degree  refers  to  one  thing  (or  set  of 
things)  as  belonging  to  a  group  or  class,  and  as  having  more  of  the 
quality  than  any  of  the  rest.     The  superlative  is  generally  followed 

by  0/. 

Good  writers  sometimes  use  the  superlative  in  comparing  two 
things  ;  as.  This  is  the  hest  of  the  two.  But  in  such  cases  usage 
largely  favors  the  comparative  ;  as.  This  is  the  letter  of  the  two. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  RemarTcs,  and  correct 
these  errors : — 

1.  Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  all  the  other  Hebrew  kings. 
Correction.— 0/  (=  belonging  to)  represents  Solomon  as  belonging 


Construction  of  Comparatives  and  Superlatives.     263 


to  a  group  of  kings,  and  other  excludes  him  from  this  group — a  con- 
tradiction in  terms.  It  should  be,  Solomon  was  the  wisest  of  Hebrew 
kings,  or  Solomon  was  iviser  than  any  other  Hebrew  king. 

2.  Of  all  the  other  books  I  have  examined,  this  is  the  most  satis- 
factory. 3.  Profane  swearing  is,  of  all  other  vices,  the  most  inex- 
cusable.    4.  He  was  the  most  active  of  all  his  companions. 

(He  was  not  one  of  his  own  companions.) 

5.  This  was  the  most  satisfactory  of  any  preceding  effort.  6,  John 
is  the  oldest  of  any  boy.  in  his  class. 

Caution. — Avoid  double  comparatives  and  double 
superlatives,  and  the  comparison  of  adjectives  whose 
meaning  will  not  admit  of   different  degrees.* 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors: — 

1.  A  more  beautifuler  location  cannot  be  found.  2.  He  took  the 
longest,  but  the  most  pleasantest,  route.  3.  Draw  that  line  more 
perpendicular. 

Correctioi^. — Draw  that  Ime. perpendicular,  or  more  nearly  perpen- 
dicular, y 

4.  The  opinion  is  becoming  more  universal.  5.  A  worser  evil  awaits 
us.  6.  The  most  principal  point  was  entirely  overlooked.  7.  That 
form  of  expression  is  more  preferable. 

Caution. — When  an  adjective  denoting  one,  or  an  adjec- 

*  Many  words  which  grammarians  have  considered  incapable  of  comparison  are 
used  in  a  sense  short  of  their  literal  meaning,  and  are  compared  by  good  writers  ;  as, 
My  chiefest  entertainment.— ASAcntZaw.  The  chiefest  -prize.— Byron.  Divinest  Me\&n- 
cho\y.— Milton.  Extremest  hell.—  Whittier.  Most  perfect  harmony.— Longfellow. 
Less  perfect  Imitations.— MacatUay.  The  extension  of  these  exceptional  forms  should 
not  be  encouraged. 


264  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


tive  denoting   more  than  one,   is  joined   to  a  noun,   the 
adjective  and  the  noun  must  agree  in  number. 

Remark. — A  numeral  denoting  more  than  one  may  be  prefixed  to 
a  singular  noun  to  form  a  compound  adjective  ;  as,  a  ten-foot  pole  (not 
a  ten-feet  pole),  a  three-cent  stamp. 

Direction. — Study  the  Caution  and  the  Remark,  and  correct  these 
errors  : — 

1.  These  kind  of  people  will  never  be  satisfied.  2.  The  room  is  fif- 
teen foot  square  ;  I  measured  it  with  a  two-feet  rule.  3.  The  farmer 
■exchanged  five  barrel  of  potatoes  for  fifty  pound  of  sugar.  4.  These 
sort  of  expressions  should  be  avoided.  5.  We  were  traveling  at  the 
rate  of  forty  mile  an  hour.  6.  Remove  this  ashes  and  put  away  that 
tongs. 

IVIiscellaneous. 

1.  He  was  more  active  than  any  other  of  his  companions. 

Correction. — As  he  is  not  one  of  his  companions,  other  is  unneces- 
sary. 

• 

2.  He  did  more  to  accomplish  this  result  than  any  other  man  that 

preceded  or  followed  him.     3.  The  younger  of  the  three  sisters  is  the 
prettier. 

(This  is  the  construction  which  requires  the  superlative.  See  the 
second  Remark  in  this  Lesson.) 

4.  This  result,  of  all  others,  is  most  to  be  dreaded.  5.  She  was  will- 
ing to  take  a  more  humbler  part.  6.  Solomon  was  wiser  than  any  of 
the  ancient  kings.  7.  I  don't  like  those  sort  of  people.  8.  I  have  the 
most  entire  confidence  in  him,,  9.  This  is  the  more  preferable  form. 
10.  Which  are  the  two  more  important  ranges  of  mountains  in  North 
America  ?     11.  He  writes  better  than  any  boy  in  his  class. 


General  Review. 


265 


GENERAL    REVIEW. 

To  THE  Teacher. — See  suggestions  to  the  teacher,  page  255. 
Scheme  for  the  Adjective. 
{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 


ADJECTIVE. 


Uses. 


Classes. 


!  Modifier  (12). 
Attribute  Complement  (29,  30). 
Objective  Complement  (31). 

j  Descriptive  (89-91). 
(  Definitive  (89-91). 


Modification. — Comparison. 


(  Pos.    Deg.  ) 

<  Comp.   "     y  127, 

(Sup.       -     ) 


128. 


Questions  on  the  Adjective. 

1.  Define  the  adjective  and  its  classes. — Lesson  89. 

2.  Define  comparison  and  the  degrees  of  comparison. — Lesson  127. 

3.  Give  and  illustrate  the  regular  method  and  the  irregular  methods 
of  comparison. — Lesson  127- 

4.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  ad- 
jectives.— Lessons  90,  91. 

5.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  com- 
parative and  superlative  forms. — Lesson  128. 


ADVERB. 


Scheme   for  the  Adverb. 


Classes. 


Time. 

Place. 

Degree. 

Manner. 

Cause. 


92-94. 


(Pos.    Deg 
Modification. — Comparison.    ■<  Comp. 
(Sup 


Deg.) 

.  ;;    J  127, 


128. 


^66  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Questions   on  the  Adverb. 

1.  Define  the  adverb  and  its  classes. — Lesson  92. 

2.  Illustrate  the  regular  method  and  the  irregular  methods  of  com- 
parison.— Lesson  127. 

3.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  ad- 
verbs.— Lesson  93. 


LESSON     12  9. 

MODIFICATIONS    OF   THE    VERB. 

VOICE. 

Introductory  Hints. — He  picked  a  rose.  A  rose  was  picked  hy 
Aim.  The  same  thing  is  here  told  in  two  ways.  The  first  xevh,  picked, 
•shows  that  the  subject  names  the  actor  ;  the  second  verb,  was  picked, 
■shows  that  the  subject  names  the  thing  acted  upon.  These  different 
iorms  and  uses  of  the  verb  constitute  the  modification  called  Voice. 
The  first  form  is  in  the  Active  Voice ;  the  second  is  in  the  Passive 
Voice. 

The  active  voice  is  used  when  the  agent,  or  actor,  is  to  be  made 
prominent  ;  the  passive,  when  the  thing  acted  upon  is  to  be  made 
prominent.  The  passive  voice  may  be  used  when  the  agent  is  un- 
•known,  or  when,  for  any  reason,  we  do  not  care  to  name  the  agent ; 
;as.  The  ship  was  wrecked  ,>  3Ioney  is  coined. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Voice  is  that  modification  of  tlie  transitive  verb  which  shows 
whether  the  subject  names  the  actor  or  the  thing  acted 
tipon. 

The  Active  Voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  actor. 

The  Passive  Voice  shows  that  the  subject  names  the  thing 
^cted  upon. 


Composition— Voice.  267" 


The  passive  form  is  compound,  and  may  be  resolved  into 
an  asserting  word  (some  form  of  the  verb  be)  and  an  attri- 
bute complement  (a  past  participle  of  a  transitive  verb). 

An  expression  consisting  of  an  asserting  word  followed 
by  an  adjective  complement  or  by  a  participle  used  adjec- 
tively  may  be  mistaken  for  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice. 

Gxamples. — The  coat  was  sometimes  ivorn  by  Joseph  {ivas  ivorn — 
passive  voice).  The  coat  was  badly  worn  {was — incomplete  predicate^ 
worn — adjective  complement). 

Remark. — To  test  the  passive  voice  note  whether  the  one  named 
by  the  subject  is  acted  upon,  and  whether  the  verb  may  be  followed 
by  by  before  the  name  of  the  agent  without  changing  the  sense. 

Direction. —  Tell  which  of  the  folloivmg  completed  predicates  may 
he  treated  as  single  verbs,  and  ivhich  should  not  be  so  treated : — 

1.  The  lady  is  accomplished.  2.  This  task  was  not  accomplished  in. 
a  day.  3.  Are  you  prepared  to  recite  ?  4.  Dinner  was  soon  prepared, 
5.  A  shadow  was  mistaken  for  a  foot-bridge.  6.  You  are  mistaken. 
7.  The  man  was  drunk  before  the  wine  was  drunk.  8.  The  house  is 
situated  on  the  bank  of  the  river.  9.  I  am  obliged  to  you.  10.  I  am 
obliged  to  do  this.  11.  The  horse  is  tired.  12.  A  fool  and  his  money 
are  soon  parted.  13.  The  tower  is  inclined.  14.  My  body  is  inclined 
by  years. 

Direction. — Name  all  the  transitive  verbs  in  Lesson  78,  a?id  give 
their  voice. 

LESSON    130. 

COMPOSITION-VOICE. 

The  object  complement  of  a  verb  in  the  active  voice 

becomes  the   subject  when  the  verb  is  changed  to  the 
passive  voice. 


268  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Example. — The  Danes  invaded  England  =  England  was  invaded 
by  the  Danes. 

Remark. — You  will  notice  that  in  the  first  sentence  the  agent  is 
made  prominent  ;  in  the  second  sentence  the  receiver. 

Direction. — In  each  of  these  sentences  change  the  voice  of  the 
transitive  verb  without  altering  the  meaning  of  the  sentence,  and 
note  the  other  changes  that  occur : — 

1.  Mercury,  the  messenger  of  the  gods,  wore  a  winged  cap  and 
winged  shoes.  2.  When  the  Saxons  subdued  the  Britons,  they  intro- 
duced into  England  their  own  language,  which  was  a  dialect  of  the 
Teutonic,  or  Gothic.  3.  My  wife  was  chosen  as  her  wedding  dress 
was  chosen,  not  for  a  fine,  glossy  surface,  but  for  such  qualities  as 
would  wear  well,  4.  Bacchus,  the  god  of  wine,  was  worshiped  in 
many  parts  of  Greece  and  Rome.  5.  The  minds  of  children  are 
dressed  by  their  parents  as  their  bodies  are  dressed— in  the  prevailing 
fashion.  6.  Harvey,  an  English  physician,  discovered  that  blood 
circulates.  7.  The  luxury  of  Capua,  more  powerful  than  the  Roman 
legions,  vanquished  the  victorious  Carthaginians.  8.  His  eloquence 
had  struck  them  dumb. 

Remark. — Notice  that  the  objective  complement  becomes  the 
attribute  complement  when  the  verb  is  changed  from  the  active  to 
the  passive  voice. 

9.  That  tribunal  pronounced  Charles  a  tyrant.  10.  The  town  had 
nicknamed  him  Beau  Seymour.  11.  Even  silent  night  proclaims  my 
soul  immortal.     12.  We  saw  the  storm  approaching. 

(Notice  that  the  objective  complement  is  here  a  participle.) 

13.  He  kept  his  mother  waiting.  14.  We  found  him  lying  dead 
on  the  field.     15.  We  all  believe  him  to  be  an  honest  man. 

(Notice  that  the  objective  complement  is  here  an  infinitive  phrase.) 


Composition— Voice.  269 


16.  Some,  sunk  to  beasts,  find  pleasure  end  in  pain.  17.  Every- 
body acknowledged  him  to  be  a  genius. 

The  indirect,  or  dative,  object  is  sometimes  made  the 
subject  of  a  verb  in  the  passive  voice,  while  the  object 
complement  is  retained  after  the  verb.* 

Example. — The  porter  refused  him  admittance  =  He  was  refused 
admittance  by  the  porter. 

Dipection. — Change  the  voice  of  the  transitive  verbs  in  these 
sentences,  and  note  the  other  changes  that  occur: — 

18.  They  were  refused  the  protection  of  the  law.  19.  He  was 
offered  a  pension  by  the  government.  20.  I  was  asked  that  question 
yesterday.     21.  He  told  me  to  leave  the  room. 

Explanation. — Here  the  infinitive  phrase  is  the  object  comple- 
ment, and  {to)  me  is  used  adverbially.  To  leave  the  room  =  that  I 
should  leave  the  room. 

22.  I  taught  the  child  to  read.  23.  I  taught  the  child  reading. 
24.  They  told  me  that  your  name  was  Fontibell. 

Direction. — Change  the  following  transitive  verbs  to  the  passive 
form,  using  first  the  regular  and  theii  the  idiomatic  consti'uc- 
tion : — 

*  Some  grammarians  condemn  this  construction.  It  is  true  that  it  is  a  violation  of 
the  general  analogies,  or  laws,  of  language  ;  but  that  it  is  an  idiom  of  our  language, 
established  by  good  usage,  is  beyond  controversy. 

Concerning  the  parsing  of  the  noun  following  this  passive,  there  is  difference  of 
opinion.  Some  call  it  an  adverbial  modifier,  some  call  it  a  "retained  object,"  and 
some  say  that  it  is  a  noun  without  grammatical  construction.  In  "  I  offered  him 
money,"  him  represents  the  one  to  whom  the  act  was  directed,  and  money  names  the 
thing  directly  acted  upon.  In  "  He  was  offered  money,"  the  relation  of  the  act  to  the 
person  and  to  the  thing  is  not  changed ;  money  still  names  the  thing  directly  acted 
upon. 


270  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Model. — He  promised  me  a  present  =  A  present  was  promised  me 
(regular)  =  /  was  promised  a  present  (idiomatic). 

25.  They  must  allow  us  the  privilege  of  thinking  for  ourselves. 
26.  He  offered  them  their  lives  if  they  would  abjure  their  religion. 

An  intransitive  verb  is  sometimes  made  transitive  by 
the  aid  of  a  preposition. 

Example. — All  his  friends  laughed  at  him  =  He  was  laughed  at 
(ridiculed)  by  all  his  friends. 

Remark. —  Was  laughed  at  may  be  treated  as  one  verb.  Some 
grammarians,  however,  would  call  at  an  adverb.  The  intransitive 
verb  and  preposition  are  together  equivalent  to  a  transitive  verb  in 
the  passive  voice. 

Direction. — Change  the  voice  of  the  following  verbs  : — 

27.  This  artful  fellow  has  imposed  upon  us  all.  28.  The  speaker 
did  not  even  touch  upon  this  topic.  29.  He  dropped  the  matter  there, 
and  did  not  refer  to  it  afterward. 

Remark. — The  following  sentences  present  a  peculiar  idiomatic 
construction.  A  transitive  verb  which,  in  the  active  voice,  is  fol- 
lowed by  an  object  complement  and  a  prepositional  phrase,  takes,  in 
the  passive,  the  principal  word  of  the  phrase  for  its  subject,  retaining 
the  complement  and  the  preposition  to  complete  its  meaning  ;  as,  They 
took  care  of  it,  It  ivas  taken  flare  of. 

Direction. — Put  the  following  sentences  into  several  different 
forms,  and  determine  which  is  the  best : — 

30.   His  original  purpose  was  lost  sight  of*  (forgotten).     31.  Such 

*  Some  would  parse  of  as  an  adverb  relating  to  was  lost,  and  sight  as  a  noun  used 
adverbially  to  modify  was  lost ;  others  would  treat  sight  as  an  object  [complement]  of 
was  lost ;  others  would  call  was  lost  sight  of  a  compound  verb  ;  and  others,  believing 
that  the  logical  relation  of  these  words  is  not  lost  by  a  change  of  position,  analyze  the 
csprcesion  as  if  arranged  thus  :  Sight  of  his  original  purpose  was  lost. 


Modifications  of  the  Verb— Continued.  271 


talents  should  be  made  much  of.  32.  He  was  taken  care  of  by  his 
friends.  33.  Some  of  his  characters  have  been  found  fault  with  as 
insipid. 

LESSON     131. 

MODIFICATIONS    OF    THE     VERB-CONTINUED. 

MODE,    TENSE,    NUMBER,    AND    PERSON. 

Introductory  Hints. — James  walks.  Here  the  walking  is  asserted 
as  an  actual  fact.  James  may  walk.  Here  the  walking  is  asserted  not 
as  an  actual,  but  as  a  possible,  fact.  If  Jamss  walk  out,  he  will  im- 
prove. Here  the  walking  is  asserted  only  as  thought  of,  without 
regard  to  its  being  or  becoming  either  an  actual  or  a  possible  fact. 
James,  walk  out.  Here  the  walking  is  not  asserted  as  a  fact,  but 
as  a  command — James  is  ordered  to  make  it  a  fact.  These  different 
uses  and  forms  of  the  verb  constitute  the  modification  which  we  call 
Mode.  The  first  verb  is  in  the  Indicative  Mode  ;  the  second  in 
the  Potential  Mode ;  the  third  in  the  Subjunctive  Mode ;  the 
fourth  in  the  Imperative  Mode. 

For  the  two  forms  of  the  verb  called  the  Participle  and  the  In- 
finitive, see  Lessons  37  and  40. 

I  walk.  I  walked.  I  shall  walk.  In  these  three  sentences  the  man- 
ner of  asserting  the  action  is  the  same,  but  the  time  in  which  the 
action  takes  place  is  different.  Walk  asserts  the  action  as  going  on 
in  present  time,  and,  as  Tense  means  time,  is  in  the  Present  Tense. 
Walked  asserts  the  action  as  past,  and  is  in  the  Past  Tense.  Shall 
walk  asserts  the  action  as  future,  and  is  in  the  Future  Tense. 

I  have  walked  out  to-day.  I  Jiad  walked  out  when  he  called.  I  shall 
have  walked  out  by  to-morrow.  Have  walked  asserts  the  action  as 
completed  at  the  present,  and  is  in  the  Present  Perfect  Tense. 
Mad  walked  asserts  the  action  as  completed  in  the  past,  and  is  in  the 


272  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Past  Perfect  Tense.     Shall  have  walked  asserts  action  to  be  com- 
pleted in  the  future,  and  is  in  the  Future  Perfect  Tense. 

I  walk.  Thou  walkest.  He  walks.  They  walk.  In  the  second 
sentence  walk  is  changed  by  adding  est ;  in  the  third  sentence,  by 
adding  s.  Verbs  are  said  to  agree  in  Person  and  Number  with  their 
subjects.  But  this  agreement  is  not  generally  marked  by  a  change 
in  the  form  of  the  verb. 


DEFINITIONS. 

Mode  is  that  modiflcatioii  of  the  verb  which  denotes  the 
manner  of  asserting*  the  action  or  being. 

The  Indicative  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  fact.^ 

The  Potential  Mode  asserts  the  power,  liberty,  possibility, 
or  necessity  of  acting  or  being. 

The  Subjunctive  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  mere 
condition,  supposition,  or  wish. 

The  Imperative  Mode  asserts  the  action  or  being  as  a  com- 
mand or  an  entreaty. 


The  Infinitive  is  a  form  of  the  verb  which  names  the  action 
or  being  in  a  general  way,  without  asserting  it  of  anything. 

The  Participle  is  a  form  of  the  verb  partaking  of  the  nature 
of  an  adjective  or  of  a  noun,  and  expressing  the  action  or  being 
as  assumed. 

The  Present  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  continu- 
ing at  the  time  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

*  In  "  Are  you  going  ?  "  or  "  You  are  going  ?  "  a  fact  is  referred  to  the  hearer  for  his 
admission  or  denial.  In  "  Who  did  it  ?  "  the  fact  that  some  person  did  it  is  assertedv 
and  the  hearer  is  requested  to  name  the  person.  It  will  be  seen  that  the  Indicative 
Mode  may  be  used  in  asking  a  question. 


Forms  of  the  Verb.  273 


The  Past  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as  past  or 
sompleted  at  the  time  indicated  by  the  predicate. 

The  Past  Perfect  Participle  denotes  action  or  being  as 
completed  at  a  time  previous  to  that  indicated  by  the  predicate. 


Tense  is  that  modification  of  the  verb  which  expresses  the 
time  of  the  action  or  being. 

The  Present  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  present. 

The  Past  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  past. 

The  Future  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  yet  to  come. 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as 
completed  at  the  present  time. 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  as  com- 
pleted at  some  past  time. 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  or  being  to  be 
completed  at  some  future  time. 


Number  and  Person  of  a  verb  are  those  modifications  that 
show  its  agreement  with  the  number  and  person  of  its  subject. 


LESSON     132. 

FORMS    OF    THE    VERB. 

CONJUGATION. 

DEFINITIONS. 

Conjugation  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  all  the  forms  of 
the  verb. 

Synopsis  is  the  regular  arrangement  of  the  forms  of  one 
number  and  person  in  all  the  modes  and  tenses. 
Auxiliary  Verbs  are  those  that  help  in  the  conjugation  of 

other  verbs. 

18 


274  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  auxiliaries  are  do,  did,  have,  liad^  shall,  should,  will, 
would,  may,  might,  can,  could,  must,  and  he  (with  all  its 
variations,  see  Lesson  135). 

The  Principal  Parts  of  a  verb,  or  those  from  which  the 
other  parts  are  derived,  are  the  present  indicative  or  the  pres- 
ent infinitive,  the  past  indicative,  and  the  past  participle. 

List  of  Irregular  Verbs.* 

To  THE  Teacher.— It  would  be  well  to  require  the  pupils,  in  studying  and  in  re- 
citing these  lists  of  irregular  verbs,  to  frame  short  sentences  illustrating  the  proper 
use  of  the  past  tense  and  the  past  participle,  e.  g.,  I  began  yesterday  ;  He  has  begun  to 
do  better.  In  this  way  the  pupils  will  be  saved  the  mechanical  labor  of  memorizing 
forms  which  they  already  know  how  to  use,  and  they  will  be  led  to  correct  what  has 
been  faulty  in  their  use  of  other  forms. 

Remarks. — Verbs  that  have  both  a  regular  and  an  irregular  form 
are  called  Redundant. 

*  Grammarians  have  classed  verbs  on  the  basis  of  their  form  or  history  as  Strong 
(or  Old)  and  Weak  (or  New). 

Strong  verbs  form  their  past  tense  by  changing  the  vowel  of  the  present  without 
adding  anything  ;  weak  verbs  form  their  past  tense  by  adding  ed,  d,  or  t. 

Some  weak  verbs  change  the  vowel  of  the  present ;  as,  tell,  told  ;  teach,  taught. 
These  are  weak  because  they  add  d  or  t. 

Some  weak  verbs  shorten  the  vowel  of  the  present  without  adding  anything ;  as, 
feed,  fed  ;  lead,  led  ;  and  some  have  the  present  and  the  past  alike  ;  as,  set,  set ;  rid, 
rid.    They  have  dropped  the  past  tfense  ending. 

The  past  participle  of  all  strong  verbs  once  ended  in  en  or  n,  but  in  many  verbs  this 
ending  is  now  lost. 

Since  most  verbs  form  their  past  tense  and  past  participle  by  adding  ed,  we  call 
such  Regular,  and  all  others  Irregular.  Our  irregular  verbs  include  all  strong  verbs  and 
those  that  may  be  called  "  irregular  weak  "  verbs. 

Of  the  ed  added  to  form  the  past  tense  of  regular  verbs,  d  is  what  remains  of  did  ; 
we-did-lave,  for  instance,  being  written  lave-did-we.  This  derivation  of  d  in  ed  is 
questioned.  The  d  of  the  participle  is  not  from  did  but  is  from  an  old  participle  suffix. 
The  e  in  the  ed  of  both  these  forms  is  the  old  connecting  vowel. 


Forms  of  the  Verb. 


275 


Verbs  that  are  wanting  in  any  of  their  parts,  as  can  and  may,  are 
called  Defective. 

The  present  participle  is  not  here  given  as  a  principal  part.  It  may 
always  be  formed  from  the  present  tense  by  adding  ing. 

In  adding  iiig  and  other  terminations,  the  Rules  for  Spelling  (see 
Lesson  127)  should  be  observed. 

The  forms  below  in  Italics  are  regular  ;  and  those  in  smaller  type 
are  obsolete,  and  need  not  be  committed  to  memory. 


Present.        Past.        Past  Par. 


Abide,  abode, 

^'        awaked. 

Be  or  am,    was. 

Bear,  bore, 

{bring forth)  bare, 

Bear,  bore, 

{carry)  bare, 

beat, 

began, 

bent, 

bended, 

bereft, 

bereaved, 

besought, 

bet. 

betted, 

bade,  bid, 

bound, 

bit, 

bled, 

blent. 

Mended, 

blest, 

blessed. 


Bereave, 

Beseech, 

Bet, 

Bid, 
Bind, 
Bite, 
Bleed, 

Blend, 
Bless, 


abode. 

awaked. 

been, 
born, 
borne, 
borne. 

beaten, 

beat. 

begun. 

bent, 

bended. 

bereft, 

bereaved. 

besought. 

bet, 

betted. 

bidden,  bid. 

bound. 

bitten,  bit. 

bled. 

blent, 

blended. 

blest, 

blessed. 


Present.        Past. 


Blow, . 
Break, 

Breed, 
Bring, 
Build, 


Chide, 

Choose, 

Cleave, 

(adhere) 

Cleave, 

{split) 

Cling, 

Clothe, 

(Be)  Come, 
Cost, 


blew, 

broke, 
brake, 

bre^ 

brought, 

built, 

burnt, 

burned, 

burst, 

bought, 

could, 

ca«t, 

caught, 

chid, 

chose, 

cleaved, 
clave, 

cleft, 
clove, 
clave, 

clung, 

clad, 

clothed, 

came, 

cost. 


Past  Par. 

blown. 

broken. 

bred. 

brought. 

built. 

burnt, 

burned. 

burst. 

bought. 

cast. 

caught. 

chidden, 

chid. 

chosen. 

cleaved. 

cleft, 

cloven, 

cleaved. 

clung. 

clad, 

clothed. 

come. 

cost. 


*  Can,  may,  shall,  will,  must,  and  ought  were  originally  past  •forms.    This  accountB 
for  their  having  no  change  in  the  third  person. 


276 

Present. 

Creep, 

Crow, 

Cut, 

Dare, 

(.venture) 

Deal, 

Dig, 

Do, 
Draw, 

Dream, 

Dress, 

Drink, 
Drive, 

Dwell, 

Eat, 

(Be)  Fall, 
Feed, 
Feel, 
Fight, 
^^Find, 
Flee, 
Fling, 
Fly, 

Forsake, 
Forbear, 
Freeze, 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Past.        Past  Par. 


crept, 

crew, 

crowed, 

cut, 

durst, 

dared, 

dealt, 

dug, 
digged, 

did, 

drew, 

dreamt, 

dreamed, 

drest, 

dressed, 

drank, 
drove, 

dwelt, 
dwelled, 

ate, 

fell, 

fed, 

felt, 

fought, 

found, 

fled, 

flung, 

flew, 

forsook, 

forbore, 

froze, 


crept. 
crowed. 
cut. 
dared. 

dealt. 

dug, 
digged. 

done. 

drawn. 

dreamt, 

dreamed. 

drest, 


(For)  Get,    got, 


drunk, 
driven. 

dwelt, 
dwelled. 

eaten. 

fallen. 

fed. 

felt. 

fought.' 

found. 

fled. 

flung. 

flown. ' 

forsaken. 

forborne. 

frozen. 

got, 
gotten.* 


Present.       Past. 
Q'Ki'  flied, 

(For)  Give,  gave. 
Go,  went,f 

(Ei^trrave,  graved, 


Grind, 
Grow, 

Hang, 

Have, 
Hear, 

Heave, 

Hew, 

Hide, 
Hit, 


ground,, 
grew, 

hung, 
hanged, 

had, 
heard, 

hove, 
heaved, 

hewed. 


hid, 
hit, 
(Be)  Hold,   held. 


Hurt, 
Keep, 

Kneel, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lade, 

{load) 

Lay, 
Lead, 


hurt, 
kept, 

knelt, 
kneeled, 

knit, 
knitted, 

knew, 
laded, 

laid, 
led. 


Past  Par. 

gilt, 
gilded. 

girt, 
girded. 
given, 
gone. 

graved, 
graven. 

ground, 
grown. 

hung, 
hanged.X 

had. 
heard. 

hove,§ 
heaved. 

hewed, 
hewn. 

hidden,  hid. 
hit. 

held, 
\  ho]den._^ 

^'^Gurt. 

kept. 

knelt, 
kneeled. 

knit, 
knitted. 

known. 

laded, 

laden. 

laid, 
led. 


*  (rotten  is  obsolescent  except  m  jorgoli 
t  Went  is  the  past  of  wend,  to  go. 
X  Hang,  to  execute  by  hanging,  is  regular. 
§  H&oe  is  used  in  sea  language. 


List  of  Irregular  Verbs— Continued. 


277 


LESSON    133. 


LIST    OF 

IRREGULAR 

VERBS 

-CONTINUED. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Lean, 
Leap, 

leant, 
leaned, 
leapt, 
leOfpedf.^ 

leant, 
leaned. 
leapt, 
leaped. 

Put, 
Quit, 

Rap, 
Read, 

put, 

quit, 

quitted, 

quoth, f 

rapt, 

rapped, 

read. 

put. 
quit, 
quitted. 

_lLearn,) 
V     Leave, 

learnt, 

learned, 

left, 

Hea^Slg^ 
learned. 
left.    . 

rapt, 

rapped. 

read. 

Lend, 

lent. 

lent. 

Rend, 

rent. 

rent. 

/Let, 

let. 

let. 

Rid, 

rid. 

rid. 

/      Lie,     ] 

lay, 

lain. 

Ride, 

rode, 

ridden. 

(recline)! 

\    Light,'^ 

Lose,/ 
Make,, 

lighted, 
lit, 
lost, 
made. 

lighted, 
lit.* 
lost, 
made. 

Ring,    ^ 
(A)  Rise, 
Rive, 

rang. 

rung. 

rose, 
rived. 

riven, 
rived. 

Mav,/ 

Mow, 

might, 
meant, 
met, 

mowed, 

meant, 
met. 
mowed, 
mown. 

Run, 

Saw, 

Say, 
See, 

ran, 

sawed, 

said, 
saw. 

run. 

sawed, 

sawn. 

said. 

seen. 

Must, 

Ought, 

Pay, 

Pen, 

(inclose) 

paid, 
pent, 
penned. 

paid, 
pent, 
penned. 

Seek,    ■ 
Seethe, 
Sell, 

sought, 
seethed, 

80d, 

sold, 
sent, . 

sought. 
seethed, 
sodden, 
sold, 
sent. ,      ,,^ 

♦  Lighted  is  preferred  to  lit. 

t  Quoth,  now  nearly  obsolete,  is  used  only  in  the  first  and  the  third  person  of  the 
past  tense.  Quoth  I  =  said  I.  Other  forms  nearly  obsolete  are  sometimes  met  in 
literature  ;  as,  '■'■Methinks  I  scent  the  morning  air  " ;  "  Woe  worth  the  day."  Methinks 
(A.  8.  thincan,  to  seem,  not  thencan,  to  think)  =  seems  to  me.  In  the  sentence  above, 
I  scent  the  morning  air  is  the  subject,  thinks  is  the  predicate,  and  ms  is  a  "dative," 
or  a  pronoun  used  adverbially.  Woe  worth  (A.  S.  weorthan,  to  be  or  become)  the 
day  =  Woe  be  to  the  day,  or  Let  woe  be  to  the  day,  or  May  woe  be  to  the  day. 


278 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

Present. 

Past. 

Past  Par. 

(Be)  Set, 

set, 

set. 

Speed, 

sped. 

sped. 

Shake, 

shook. 

shaken. 

Spell, 

spelt, 

spelt. 

Shall, 

should. 

spelled. 

spelled. 

Shape, 

shaped^ 

shaped. 

Spend, 

spent. 

spent. 

shapen. 

Spill, 

spilt. 

spilt,      . 

Shave, 

shaved, 

shaved. 

spilled, 

spilled. 

shaven. 

Spin, 

spun, 

spun. 

Shear, 

sheared, 

sheared. 

span. 

shore, 

shorn. 

Spit, 

spit. 

spit, 

Shed, 

shed. 

shed. 

spat, 

spitten. 

Shine, 

shone. 

shone. 

Split, 

split, 

split. 

Shoe, 

shod. 

shod. 

Spoil, 

spoilt, 
spoiled. 

spoilt, 
spoiled. 

Shoot, 

shot, 

shot, 
shown, 
.  showed. 

Spread, 

spread, 

spread. 

Show, 

showed. 

Spring, 

sprang, 

sprung. 

sprung, 

Shred, 

shred. 

shred. > 

Stand, 

stood. 

stood. 

Shrink, 

shrank, 
shrunk, 

shrunk, 
shrunken. 

Stave, 

stove, 
staved. 

stove, 
staved. 

Shut, 

shut. 

shut. 

Stay, 

staid, 

staid, 

Sing, 

sang, 

sung. 

stayed, 

stayed. 

sung, 

Steal, 

stole. 

stolen. 

Sink, 

sank, 

sunk, 

sunk, 
sunken. 

Stick, 

stuck. 

stuck. 

Sit, 

sat. 

•sat. 

Sting, 

stung. 

stung. 

Slay, 

slew, 

slain. 

Stink, 

stunk. 

stunk. 

Sleep, 

slept, 

slept. 

stank, 

strewn, 
strewed. 

Slide, 

slid. 

slidden, 
slid. 

Strew, 

strewed. 

Sling, 
Slink, 

slung, 

slang, 

slunk. 

slung, 
slunk. 

Stride, 
Strike, 

strode, 
struck. 

stridden. 

struck, 

stricken. 

Slit, 

slit, 

slit,^ 

String, 

strung, 

strung. 

slitted, 

slitted. 

Strive, 

strove, 

striven. 

Smell, 

smelt, 
smelted, 

smelt, 
smelted. 

Strow, 

strowed. 

strown, 
strowed. 

Smite, 

smote, 

smitten, 
smit. 

Swear, 

swore, 
sware, 

sworn. 

Sow, 

sowed, 

sown, 
sowed. 

Sweat, 

sweat, 
sweated, 

sweat, 
siveated. 

Speak, 

spoke, 
spake, 

spoken. 

Sweep, 

swept, 

swept. 

.  r. 

Forn 

Past. 

ns  of  the  Verb— Cont 

inued. 
Past. 

2' 

Present. 

Past  Par. 

Present. 

Past  Par. 

Swell, 

swelled, 

swelled, 

Wake, 

waked, 

waked, 

swollen. 

woke. 

woke. 

Swim, 

swam, 
swum, 

swum. 

Wax, 

waxed, 

waxed, 
waxen. 

Swing, 

swung, 

swung. 

Wear, 

wore. 

worn. 

Take, 

took, 

taken. 

Weave, 

wove, 

woven. 

Teach, 

taught, 

taught. 

Weep, 

wept. 

wept. 

Tear, 

tore, 

torn. 

Wet, 

wet, 

wet. 

tare, 

Will, 

would. 

Tell, 

told. 

told. 

Win, 

won. 

won. 

Think, 

thought, 

thought. 

Wind, 

wound. 

wound. 

Thrive, 

throve, 
thrived. 

thriven, 
thrived. 

Work, 

wrought, 
worked. 

wrought, 
worked. 

Throw, 

threw. 

thrown. 

(to)wit. 

Thrust, 

thrust, 

thrust. 

wot, 

wist, 

Tread, 

trod. 

trodden. 

Wring, 

wrung. 

wrung. 

trod. 

Write, 

wrote. 

written. 

Note.— Professor  Lounsbury  says,  "  Modern  English  has  lost  not  a  single  one 
[irregular,  or  strong,  verb]  since  the  reign  of  Queen  Elizabeth  "  ;  and  adds,  "  The 
present  disposition  of  the  language  is  not  only  to  hold  firmly  to  the  strong  verbs 
it  already  possesses  but  .  .  .  even  to  extend  their  number  whenever  possible."  And 
he  instances  a  few  which  since  1600  have  deserted  from  the  regular  conjugation  to 
the  irregular. 

But  it  should  be  said  that  new  English  verbs,  from  whatever  source  derived,  form 
their  past  tense  and  participle  in  ed.  So  that  while  the  regular  verbs  are  not  increas- 
ing by  desertions  from  the  irregular,  the  regular  verbs  are  slowly  gaining  in  number. 


LESSON      134. 

FORMS    OF    THE    VERB-CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION  * — SIMPLEST   FORM. 

Remark. — English  verbs  have  few  inflections  compared  with  those 

*  We  give  the  conjugation  of  the  verb  in  the  simplest  form  consistent  with  what  is 
now  demanded  of  a  text-book.    Much  of  this  scheme  might  well  be  omitted. 

Those  who  wish  to  reject  the  Potential  Mode,  and  who  prefer  a  more  elaborate  and 
technical  claesiflcation  of  the  mode  and  tense  forms,  are  referred  to  pages  373,  374. 


280 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


of  other  languages.  Some  irregular  verbs  have  seven  forms—see, 
saw,  seeing,  seen,  sees,  seest,  sawest ;  regular  verbs  have  six- 
walk,  walked,  walking,  walks,  walkest,  walkedst.  As  a  sub- 
stitute for  other  inflections  we  prefix  auxiliary  verbs,  and  make  what 
are  called  compound,  or  periphrastic,  forms. 

Direction. — Fill  out  the  following  forms,  using  the  principal  parts 
of  the  verb  walTc — present  walk;  past  walked;  past 
participle  walked: — 

INDICATIVE   MODE. 

PRESENT    TENSE. 


1. 

S 

(I)  - 
((You)  _ 
'i  (Thou) 

(He)      _ 

(I)  _ 
j(You)  _ 
\  (Thou)  _ 

(He)      _ 

(I)  shall 

(You)  wi 

'  (Thou)  u 

(He)  will 

(I)  have 
(  (You)  ha 
}  (Thou)  h 

(He)  ha-f 

ingul 
Pres. 

ar. 
~'est,* 

Pres.     . 

PAST 
FUTURI 

SNT    PE 

Plural. 
1.  (We)         Pres.     ^ 

2. 

Pres. 
Pres. 
Pres. 

2.  (You)       Pres.    . 

3. 

3.  (Thev)      P-^'    . 

1. 

Past 

TENSE. 

1.  (We)          Past    . 

2. 

Past 
Past 
Past 

2.  (You)        Past    . 

3. 

3.  (Thev)      Past     . 

1. 

11      I 
il-t  _ 

1 
ve      i 
a-st  i 

:    TENSE. 

1.  (We)  shall       Pres.    . 

2. 

Pres.     , 
Pres.     , 

2.   (You)  will       Pres.     , 

3. 

1. 
2. 
3. 

Pres.     ; 

PRES] 

°ast  Par., 
°ast  Par., 
°ast  Par., 
°ast  Par. ; 

3.  (They)  will     Pres.    . 

RFECT    TENSE. 

1.  (We)  have     Past  Par., 

2.  (You)  have    Past  Par., 

3.  (Thev)  have  Past  Par.. 

*  In  the  indicative  present,  second,  singular,  old  style,  ot  is  sometimes  added  in 
stead  of  est ;  and  in  the  third  person,  common  style,  es  is  added  when  s  will  not  unite. 
In  the  third  person,  old  style,  eth  is  added. 


Forms  of  the  Verb— Continued.  281 


PAST    PERFECT    TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.       {I)  had  P<^i  ^«^-.  1.  (We)  had     Po^t  Par., 

*    .(You);.a^         P^^i^.  ^    (You)Aad    Past  Par.. 
^'    \  (Thou)  had-St  Past  Par., 

3.       (He)  had  ,  Past  Par. ;  3.  (They)  had  Past  Par., 

FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 

1.       (I)  shall  have         Past  Par.,  1.  (We)  shall  have  Past  Par., 

UYou)  will  have  ^st^,  2.  (You)  will  have  PasiPar.^ 
{  (Thou)  wil-t  have  Past  Par., 

3.       (Re)  will  have       Past  Par. ;  3.  (They;>  will  have  Past  Par., 

POTENTIAL   MODE.* 


PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.      (I)  may                 Pf^'    .  1.  (We)  may        Pres. 

j  (You)  may         _Pres^.  2    ^You)  may       Pres. 


i  (Thou)  may-st     Pr^- 
3.       (He)  may  Pres.     ;  3.  (They)  may  .    Pres.    . 

PAST    TENSE. 

1.       (I)  might  Pres.    .  1.  (We)  might        Pres.    , 

i  (You)  m*^;.^        _^,  2  Pm.    . 

l(Thou)  m«^M-»«  __P?::!!i_,  ^        '      ^       

3.       (He)  might  Pres.     ;  3.  (They)  might     Pres.    . 

PRESENT    PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  (L)  may  have  Past  Par.,  \.  (We)  may  have      Past  Par., 

^     C  (You)  may  have        Past  Par.,  «    ,v     ,  ■.  j,„,*  p^^ 

2.  -1  \„,                   ^  ,         „   ,  „ —             2.  (You)  may  have    Past  Par., 
\  (Thou)  may-st  have  Past  Par.,  ^        ^        ^  

3.  (Re)  may  have  Past  Par.-,  d.  (They)  may  have  Past_Par., 

*  Those  who  do  not  wish  to  recognize  a  Potential  Mode,  but  prefer  the  more 
difficult  task  of  determining  when  may,  might,  could,  would,  and  should  are  independ- 
ent verbs  in  the  indicative,  and  when  auxiliaries  in  the  subjunctive,  are  referred  to 
pages  370-374. 


282  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


PAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 

Singular,  Plural. 

1.      (I)  might  have  Past  Par.,  1.  (We)  might  have     Past  Par., 

^     (  (You)  might  have        Past  Par.,  ^  ,,,     ,      .  ,  .  .,  „   .  „ 

2-  i  (Thou)  Might-st  have  ^Z^,  ^-  ^^"""^  ™'^«  '"'''   ^2^^' 

3.      (He)  might  have  Past  Par. ;  3.  (They)  might  have  Past  Par., 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE.* 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular. 
2.  (If  thou)      Pres.     ,  3.  (If  he)      Pres.     , 

IMPERATIVE    MODE.f 

PRESENT    TENSE, 

Singular.  Plural. 

2.      Pres.      (you  or  thou) ;  2.      Pres.      (you  or  ye). 


*  The  subjunctive  as  a  form  of  the  verb  is  fading  out  of  the  language.  The  only  dis- 
tinctive forms  remaining  (except  for  the  verb  be)  are  the  second  and  the  third  person 
singular  of  the  present,  and  even  these  are  giving  way  to  the  indicative.  Such  forms 
as  If  he  have  loved,  etc.  are  exceptional.  It  is  true  that  other  forms,  as.  If  he  had 
known.  Had  he  been,  ShmUd  he  fall,  may  be  used  in  a  true  subjunctive  sense,  to  assert 
what  is  a  mere  conception  of  the  mind,  i.  e.,  what  is  merely  thought  of,  without  regard 
to  its  being  or  becoming  a  fact ;  but  in  these  cases  it  is  not  the  form  of  the  verb  but 
the  connective  or  something  in  the  construction  of  the  sentence  that  determines  the 
manner  of  assertion.  In  parsing,  the  verbs  in  such  constructions  may  be  treated  as 
indicative  or  potential,  with  a  subjunctive  meaning. 

The  offices  of  the  different  mode  and  tense  forms  are  constantly  interchanging ;  a 
classification  based  strictly  on  meaning  would  be  very  difficult,  and  would  confuse  the 
learner. 

t  From  such  forms  as  Let  us  sing.  Let  them  talk,  some  grammarians  make  a  first  and 
a  third  person  imperative.    But  us  is  not  the  subject  of  the  verb-phrase  let-sing,  and  let 
is  not  of  the  first  person.     Us  is  the  object  complement  of  let,  and  the  infinitive  sing  is 
the  objective  complement,  having  lis  for  its  assumed  subject. 
,     Some  would  find  a  first  and  a  third  person  imperative  In  such  sentences  as  "  Now 


Forms  of  the  Verb— Continued.  283 


INFINITIVES. 

PRESENT  TENSE.  PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

(To)  *      Ftes.     .  (To)  have  Past  Par., 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST.  PAST   PERFECT. 

Pres.      ing,  Pasi  Par.,  Having  Past  Par., 

tread  we  a  measure  "  ;  "  Perish  the  thought.''''  But  these  verbs  express  strong  wish  or 
desire  and  by  some  grammarians  are  called  "optative  subjunctives."  "Perish  the 
thought"  =  "May  the  thought  perish,"  or  "  I  desire  that  the  thought  may  perish,"  or 
"Let  the  thought  perish." 

*  7b,  as  indicated  by  the  ( ),  is  not  treated  as  a  part  of  the  verb.  Writers  on  lan- 
guage are  generally  agreed  that  when  to  introduces  an  infinitive  phrase  used  as  an 
adjective  or  an  adverb,  it  performs  its  proper  function  as  a  preposition,  meaning  to- 
ward, for,  etc. ;  as,  I  am  inclined  to  believe  ;  I  came  to  hear.  When  the  infinitive 
phrase  is  used  as  a  noun,  the  to  expresses  no  relation  ;  it  seems  merely  to  introduce  the 
phrase.  When  a  word  loses  its  proper  function  without  taking  on  the  function  of  some 
other  part  of  speech,  we  do  not  see  why  it  should  change  its  name.  In  the  expressions. 
For  me  to  do  this  would  be  wrong  ;  Over  the  fence  is  out  of  danger,  few  grammarians 
would  hesitate  to  call  for  and  over  prepositions,  though  they  have  no  antecedent  terra 
of  relation. 

We  cannot  see  that  to  is  a  part  of  the  verb,  for  it  in  no  way  affects  the  meaning,  as 
does  an  auxiliary,  or  as  does  the  to  in  He  was  spoken  to.  Those  who  call  it  a  part  of 
the  verb  confuse  the  learner  by  speaking  of  it  as  the  "preposition  to"  (which,  as  they 
have  said,  is  not  a  preposition)  "  placed  before  the  infinitive,"  i.  e.,  placed  before  that 
of  which  it  forms  a  part— placed  before  itself. 

In  the  Anglo-Saxon,  to  was  used  with  the  infinitive  only  in  the  dative  case,  where  it 
had  its  proper  function  as  a  preposition  ;  as,  nominative  etan  (to  eat) ;  dative  to 
etanne  ;  accusative  etan.  When  the  dative  ending  ne  was  dropped,  making  the  three 
forms  alike,  the  to  came  to  be  used  before  the  nominative  and  the  accusative,  but 
without  expressing  relation. 

This  dative  of  the  infinitive,  with  to,  was  used  mainly  to  indicate  purpose.  When, 
after  the  dropping  of  the  ne  ending,  the  idea  of  purpose  had  to  be  conveyed  by  the 
infinitive,  it  became  usual  in  Elizabethan  literature  to  place  for  before  the  to.  "  And 
for  to  deck  heaven's  battlements."— (?reewe.  "  What  went  ye  out  for  to  see  ?  ""—Bible. 
"  Shut  the  gates  for  to  preserve  the  town."— if.  Hen.  VI.,  Part  III. 


284  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


May,  can,  and  must  are  potential  auxiliaries  in  the 
present  and  the  present  perfect  tense;  might,  could, 
in^ould,  and  should,  in  the  past  and  the  past  perfect. 

The  emphatic  form  of  the  present  and  the  past  tense 
indicative  is  made  by  prefixing  do  and  did  to  the  present. 
Do  is  prefixed,  to  the  imperative  also. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Require  the  pupils  to  fill  out  these  forms  with  other  verbs,  reg- 
ular and  irregular,  using  the  auxiliaries  named  above. 


LESSON    135 

;\  / 
y  FORMS    OF    THE    VERB-CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION  OF   THE   VERB   BE.* 

Direction. — Learn  the  following  forms,  paying  no  attention  to  the 
line  at  the  right  of  each  verh : — 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

V  PRESENT   TENSE. 

Singular.                                             Plural. 
1.      (I)  am ,  1.  (We)  are , 


^     j  (You)  are ,  or  o    /v     n 

'^-    i  rrru     \      >  2.  (You)  are  — 

t  (Thou)  art ,  ^ 

S.      (He)  is ;  3.  (They)  are  - 

/  PAST  TENSE. 

1.       (I)  was  — ^ ,  1.  (We)  were  — 

-     j  (You)  were ,  or  «    /t-     ^ 

^'    ]  /mi,     X        i.  2.  (Y  ou)  were  - 

(  (Thou)  wast ,  ^        ^ 

S.      (He)  was ;  •           3.  (They)  were 


*  The  conjugation  of  be  contains  three  distinct  roots— a«,  be,  was.    Am,  art,  is,  are 
are  from  as.    Am  =  as-m  (m  is  the  m  in  me).    Art  =  as-t  (t  is  the  th  in  thou). 
Be  was  formerly  conjugated,^!  be,  Thou  beest,  He  beth  or  bes ;  We  be,  Ye  be,  They  be. 


\ 


Forms  of  the  Verb— Continued. 


FUTURE  TENSE. 


Singular. 

(I)  shall  be 

\  (You)  will  be  — 


(Thou)  wilt  be 
(He)  will  be  — 


Plural. 
1.  (We)  shall  be  - 

3.  (You)  will  be - 

3.  (They)  will  be 


PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

,  1.  (We)  have  been 

(You)  have  been ,  er 

(Thou)  hast  been y 

(He)  has  been  • 


(I)  have  been 


(I)  had  been 
(You)  had  been  — 
(Thou)  hadst  been 
(He)  had  been 


'4^ 

pAs-n^^ 


2.  (You)  have  been  - 

3.  (They)  have  been 

ERFECT  TENSE. 

1.  (We)  had  been  — 


2.  (You)  had  been  - 

3.  (They)  had  been 


FUTURE  PERFECT  TENSE. 


(I)  shall  have  been 

(You)  will  have  been 

(Thou)  wilt  have  been  -r- 
(He)  will  have  been 


1.  (We)  shall  have  been - 

2.  (You)  will  have  been- 

3.  (They)  will  have  been- 


X 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 

BICT   i«:NSE. 


PRESES 


3. 
1. 

3. 


Singular. 

(I)  may  be 

(You)  may  be  — 
(Thou)  mayst  be  ■ 
(He)  may  be 


Plural. 
1.  (We)  may  be 


2.  (You)  may  be  - 

3.  (They)  may  be 


PAST  TENSE. 


(I)  might  be 

(You)  might  be  — 
(Thou)  mightst  be 
(He)  might  be 


A7 


1.  (We)  might  be - 

2.  (You)  might  be  - 

3.  (They)  might  be 


285 


286  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

Singular.  Plural. 

1.  (I)  may  have  been ,  1.  (We)  may  have  been  - 

(  (You)  may  have  been ,  or      ^   /^t     \  \        u 

2.  \  \„'       ^       ,         ,  2.  (You)  may  have  been  - 
\  (Thou)  mayst  have  been , 

3.  (He)  may  have  been ;  3.  (They)  may  have  been - 

PAST   PERFECT   TENSE. 

1.  (I)  might  have  been ,  1.  (We)  might  have  been  - 

^     U You)  might  have  been >  or  -1.^-1,       u  ^„ 

2.  i  ,^,            .  ,        ,         ,  2.  (You)  might  have  been - 
( (Thou)  mightst  have  been ,      ^        '      ^ 

3.  (He)  might  have  been ;        3.  (They)  might  have  been- 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT  TENSE. 

Singular.                                                Plural. 
1.   (If  I)  be ,  1.  (If  we)  be , 

3.   (If  he)  be ;  3.  (If  they)  be . 

PAST  TENSE. 

Singular. 
1.   (If  I)  were *—, " 


2. 


(If  you)  were 


(If  thou)  wert 
3.       (If  he)  were  — 


IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

PRESENT   TENSE. 

lar.                                              Plural. 
Be  (you  or  thou) ;  2.  Be  (you  or  ye) 

INFINITIVES. 

PRESENT  TENSE.  PRESENT  PERFECT  TENSE. 

(To)  be .  (To)  have  been . 

PARTICIPLES. 

PRESENT.  PAST.  PAST  PERFECT. 

Beini'    .  Been.  Having  been 


Forms  of  the  Verb— Continued.  287 


LESSON     136 


FORMS    OF    THE    VERB-CONTINUED. 

CONJUGATION — PROGRESSIVE   AND   PASSIVE   FORMS. 

A  verb  is  conjugated  in  the  progressive  form  by  joining 
its  present  participle  to  the  different  forms  of  the  verb  he. 

A  transitive  verb  is  conjugated  in  the  passive  voice  by 
joining  its  past  participle  to  the  different  forms  of  the 
verb  be. 

Remark. — The  progressive  form  denotes  a  continuance  of  the 
action  or  being;  as,  The  birds  are  singing. 

Verbs  that  in  their  simple  form  denote  continuance — such  as  lovej 
respect,  know — should  not  be  conjugated  in  the  progressive  form.  We 
say,  I  love  the  child — not  I  am  loving  the  child. 

Remarks. — The  progressive  form  is  sometimes  used  with  a  passive 
meaning  ;  as,  The  house  is  building.  In  such  cases  the  word  in  ing 
was  once  a  verbal  noun  preceded  by  the  preposition  a,  a  contraction 
from  on  or  in  ;  as,  While  the  ark  was  a  preparing ;  While  the  flesh 
was  in  seething.  In  modern  language  the  preposition  is  dropped,  and 
the  word  in  ing  is  treated  adjectively. 

Another  passive  progressive  form,  consisting  of  the  verb  he  com- 
pleted by  the  present  passive  participle,  has  recently  appeared  in  our 
language — The  house  is  heing  built,  or  was  being  built.  Although 
condemned  by  many  linguists  as  awkward  and  otherwise  objection- 
able, it  has  grown  rapidly  into  good  use,  especially  in  England. 
Such  a  form  seems  to  be  needed  when  the  simpler  form  would  be  am- 
biguous, i.  e.,  when  its  subject  might  be  taken  to  name  either  the 
actor  or  the  receiver  ;  as.  The  child  is  whipping ;  The  prisoner  is  try- 
ing. Introduced  only  to  prevent  ambiguity,  the  so-called  neologism 
has  pushed  its  way,  and  is  found  where  the  old  form  would  not  be 


288  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


ambiguous.  As  now  used,  the  new  form  stands  to  the  old  in  about  the 
ratio  of  three  to  one.  • 

Direction. — Conjugate  the  verb  choose  in  the  progressive 
form  by  filling  all  the  blanks  left  after  the  different  forms  of  the 
verb  b e,  in  the  preceding  Lesson,  ivith  the presetit  participle  choos- 
ing; and  then  in  the  passive  form  by  filling  these  blanks  with 
the  past  participle  cho  sen. 

Notice  that  after  the  past  participle  of  the  verb  be  no  blank  is  left. 
The  past  participle  of  the  passive  is  not  formed  by  the  aid  of  be  ;  it  is 
never  compound.  The  past  participle  of  a  transitive  verb  is  always 
passive  except  in  such  forms  as  have  chosen,  had  chosen.  (See  have 
written,  Lesson  138.)  In  the  progressive,  the  past  participle  is  want- 
ing.    All  the  participles  of  the  verb  choose  are  arranged  in  order 

below. 

Present.  Past.  Past  Perfect. 

Simplest  form.  Choosing,  chosen,  having  chosen. 

Progressive  form.       Being  choosing,*  ,  having  been  choosing. 

Passive  form.  Being  chosen,        chosen,  having  been  chosen. 

Direction. —  Write  and  arrange  as  above  all  the  participles  of  the 
verbs  break,  drive,  read,  lift. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Select  other  verbs,  and  require  the  pupils  to  conjugate  them  in 
the  progressive  and  in  the  passive  form.  Eequire  them  to  give  synopses  of  all  the 
forms.  Eequire  them  in  some  of  their  synopses  to  use  it  or  some  noun  for  the  sub- 
ject in  the  third  person. 

LESSON     13  7. 

CONJUGATION-CONTINUED. 

INTERROGATIVE   AND   NEGATIVE   FORMS. 

A  verb  may  be  conjugated  interrogatively  in  the  indic- 
ative and  potential  modes  by  placing  the  subject  after  the 
first  auxiliary  ;  as,  Does  he  sing  9 

♦  This  form  Is  not  commonly  used. 


Mode  and  Tense  Forms.  289 

A  verb  may  be  conjugated  negatively  by  placing  not 
:after  the  first  auxiliary  ;  as.  He  does  not  sing.  Not  is 
placed  before  the  infinitive  and  the  participles ;  as,  not  to 
sing,  not  singing. 

A  question  with  negation  is  expressed  in  the  indicative 
and  potential  modes  by  placing  the  subject  and  not  after 
the  first  auxiliary ;  as.  Does  he  not  sing  9 

Remark. — Formerly,  it  was  common  to  use  the  simple  form  of  the 
present  and  past  tenses  interrogatively  and  negatively  thus  :  Loves 
he  9  I  know  not.  Such  forms  are  still  common  in  poetry,  but  in 
prose  they  are  now  scarcely  used.  "We  say,  Does  he  love  f  I  do  not 
know.  The  verbs  he  and  have  are  exceptions,  as  they  do  not  take  the 
Auxiliary  do.     We  say.  Is  it  right  ?    Have  you  another  9 

Direction. —  Write  a  synopsis  in  the  third  person,  singular,  of 
iheverb  walk  conjugated  (1)  interrogatively,  (2)  negatively, 
•and  (3)  so  as  to  express  a  question  with  negation.  Remember 
that  the  indicative  and  the  potential  are  the  only  modes  that  can  be 
nised  interrogatively. 

To  THE  Tbacher.— Select  other  verbs,  and  require  the  pupils  to  conjugate  them 
negatively  and  interrogatively  in  the  progressive  and  in  the  passive  form.  Require 
the  pupils  to  give  synopBea  of  all  the  forms. 


LESSON     138. 

MODE    AND    TENSE    FORMS. 

COMPOUND   FORMS — ANALYSIS. 

The  compound,  or  periphrastic,  forms  of  the  verb  consisting  of 
two  words  may  each  be  resolved  into  an  asserting  word  and  a  par- 
ticiple or  an  infinitive. 
19 


290  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


If  we  look  at  the  original  meaning  of  the  forms  I  do  write,  I  shall 
write,  I  will  write,  we  shall  find  that  the  so-called  auxiliary  is  the 
real  verb,  and  that  write  is  an  infinitive  used  as  object  complement. 
I  do  write  =  I  do  or  perforin  the  action  {to)  write.  I  shall 
w^rite  =  I  owe  {to)  write.  I  will  write  =  I  determine  {to) 
w^rite. 

May  write,  can  write,  must  write,  might  write,  could  write, 
w^ould  write,  and  should  write  may  each  be  resolved  into  an  assert- 
ing word  and  an  infinitive. 

The  forms  is  Meriting,  was  w^ritten,  etc,  consist  each  of  an  assert- 
ing word  (the  verb  he),  and  a  participle  used  as  attribute  com- 
plement. 

The  forms  have  written  and  had  written  are  so  far  removed 
from  their  original  meaning  that  their  analysis  cannot  be  made  to 
correspond  with  their  history.  They  originated  from  such  expressions 
as  /  have  a  letter  written,  in  which  have  { —  possess)  is  a  transitive  verb 
taking  letter  for  its  object  complement,  and  written  is  a  passive  parti- 
ciple modifying  letter.  The  idea  of  possession  has  faded  out  of  have, 
and  the  participle  has  lost  its  passive  meaning.  The  use  of  this  form 
has  been  extended  to  intransitive  verbs— Spring  ^as  come,  Birds  have 
flown,  etc.  being  now  regularly  used  instead  of  the  more  logical  per- 
fect tense  forms,  Spring  is  come.  Birds  are  flown.  {Is  come,  are  flown, 
etc.  must  not  be  mistaken  for  transitive  verbs  in  the  passive  voice.)  * 

*  A  peculiar  use  of  had  is  found  in  the  expressions  had  rather  go  and  had  better  go, 
condemned  by  many  grammarians  who  suppose  had  to  be  here  used  incorrectly  for 
would  or  gfimdd.  Of  these  expressions  the  "  Standard  Dictionary,"  an  authority 
worthy  of  our  attention,  says  :— 

"  Forms  disputed  by  certain  grammatical  critics  from  the  days  of  Samuel  John- 
son, the  critics  insisting  upon  the  substitution  of  would  or  should,  as  the  case  may 
demand,  for  had  ;  but  had  rather  and  had  better  are  thoroughly  established  English 
idioms  having  the  almost  universal  popular  and  literary  sanction  of  centuries.  'I 
would  rather  not  go  '  is  undoubtedly  correct  when  the  purpose  is  to  emphasize  the  ele- 


Mode  and  Tense  Forms.  291 


Compounds  of  more  than  two  words  may  be  analyzed  thus  :  May- 
have  been  written  is  composed  of  the  compound  auxiliary  may- 
have  been  and  the  participle  written ;  may  have  been  is  composed 
of  the  compound  auxiliary  may  have  and  the  participle  been ;  and 
may  have  is  composed  of  the  auxiliary  may  and  the  infinitive  have. 
May  is  the  asserting  word — the  first  auxiliary  is  always  the  asserting 
word. 

Direction. — Study  what  has  been  said  above  and  analyze  the  fol- 
lowing verbal  formSy  distinguishing  carefully  between  participles  that 
may  be  considered  as  part  of  the  verb  and  words  that  must  be  treated 
as  attribute  complements: — 

1.  I  may  be  mistaken.  3.  The  farm  was  sold.  3.  I  shall  be  con- 
tented. 4.  Has  it  been  decided  ?  5.  You  should  have  been  working. 
6.  The  danger  might  have  been  avoided.  7.  He  may  have  been  tired 
and  sleepy.  8.  She  is  singing.  9.  I  shall  be  satisfied.  10.  The  rule 
has  not  been  observed.  11.  Stars  have'  disappeared.  12.  Times  will 
surely  change. 

ment  of  choice,  or  will,  in  the  matter  ;  but  in  all  ordinary  cases  '  I  had  rather  not  go ' 
has  the  merit  of  being  idiomatic  and  easily  and  universally  understood. 

"  If  for  '  You  had  better  stay  at  home '  we  substitute  '  You  should  better  stay  at 
home,'  an  entirely  dijfferent  meaning  is  expressed,  the  idea  of  expediency  giving  place 
to  that  of  obligation." 

In  the  analysis  of  "  J  had  rather  go,""  had  is  the  predicate  verb,  the  infinitive  go  is 
the  object  complement,  and  the  adjective  rather  completes  had  and  belongs  to  go,  i.  e., 
is  objective  complement.  Had  (=  should  hold  or  regard)  is  treated  as  a  past  subjunc- 
tive. Rather  is  the  comparative  of  the  old  adjective  rathe  —  early,  from  which 
comes  the  idea  of  preference.  The  expression  means,  "I  should  hold  going  prefer- 
able." 

The  expressions  "You  had  better  stay,"  "I  had  as  lief  not  be,"  are  similar  in 
construction  to  "  I  had  rather  go."  "I  had  sooner  go  "  is  condemned  by  grammarians 
because  sooner  is  never  an  adjective.  If  sooner  is  here  allowed  as  an  idiom,  it  is  a 
modifier  of  had.    The  expression  equals,  "  I  should  more  willingly  have  going." 


292  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


TENSE   FORMS — MEANING. 

The  Present  Tense  is  used  to  express  (1)  what  is  act- 
ually present,  (2)  what  is  true  at  all  times,  (3)  what  fre- 
quently or  habitually  takes  place,  (4)  what  is  to  take  place 
in  the  future,  and  it  is  used  (5)  in  describing  past  or  future 
events  as  if  occurring  at  the  time  of  the  speaking. 

Examples. —  I  hear  a  voice  (action  as  present).  The  sun  gives  light 
(true  at  all  times).  He  writes  for  the  newspapers  (habitual).  Phillips 
speaks  in  Boston  to-morrow  night  (future).  He  mounts  the  scaffold  ; 
the  executioners  approach  to  bind  him  ;  he  struggles,  resists,  etc.  (past 
events  pictured  to  the  imagination  as  present).  The  clans  of  CuUoden 
are  scattered  in  fight ;  they  rally,  they  Need,  etc.  (future  events  now 
seen  in  vision). 

The  Past  Tense  may  express  (1)  simply  past  action  or 
being,  (2)  a  past  habit  or  custom,  (3)  a  future  event,  and 
(4)  it  may  refer  to  present  time. 

Kxamples. — The  birds  sang  (simply  past  action).  He  wroh  for  the- 
newspapers  (past  habit).  If  I  should  go,  you  would  miss  me  (future 
events).    If  he  were  here,  he  would  enjoy  this  (refers  to  present  time). 

The  Future  Tense  may  express  (1)  simply  future  action 
or  being,  (2)  a  habit  or  custom  as  future  or  as  indefinite  in 
time. 

Examples. — I  shall  write  soon  (simply  future  action).  He  will  sit 
there  by  the  hour  (indefinite  in  time). 

The  Present  Perfect  Tense  expresses  (1)  action  or 
being  as  completed  in  present  time  {i.  e.,  a  period  of  time — 
an  hour,  a  year,  an  age — of  which  the  present  forms  a» 


Mode  and  Tense  Forms.  293 


part),  and  (2)  action  or  being  to  be  completed  in  a  future 
period. 

Examples. — B.omer  has  written  poems  (the  period  of  time  affected 
by  this  completed  action  embraces  the  present).  When  I  have  finished 
this,  you  shall  have  it  (action  to  be  completed  in  a  future  period). 

The  Past  Perfect  Tense  expresses  (1)  action  or  being 
as  completed  at  some  specified  past  time,  and  (2)  in  a  con- 
ditional or  hypothetical  clause  it  may  express  past  time. 

Examples. — I  had  seen  him  when  I  met  you  (action  completed  at  a 
specified  past  time).  If  I  had  had  time,  I  should  have  written  (I  had 
not  time — I  did  not  write.) 

The  Future  Perfect  Tense  expresses  action  to  be  com- 
pleted at  some  specified  future  time. 

Example. — I  shall  have  seen  him  by  to-morrow  noon. 

Direction. — Study  what  has  been  said  above  about  the  meaning  of 
the  tense  forms,  and  describe  carefully  the  time  expressed  by  each  of  the 
following  verbs: — 

1.  I  go  to  the  city  to-morrow.  2.  The  village  master  taught  his 
little  school.  3.  Plato  reasons  well.  4.  A  triangle  has  three  sides. 
5.  To-morrow  is  the  day  appointed.  6.  Moses  has  told  many  impor- 
tant facts.  7.  The  ship  sails  next  week.  8.  She  sings  well.  9.  Cicero 
has  written  orations.  10.  He  would  sit  for  hours  and  watch  the  smoke 
curl  from  his  pipe.     11.  You  may  hear  when  the  next  mail  arrives. 

12.  Had  I  known  this  before,  I  could  have  saved  you  much  trouble. 

13.  He  will  occasionally  lose  his  temper.  14.  At  the  end  of  this  week 
I  shall  have  been  in  school  four  years.  15.  If  I  were  you,  I  would  try 
that.  16.  He  will  become  discouraged  before  he  has  thoroughly  tried 
it.  17.  She  starts,  she  moves,  she  seems  to  feel  the  thrill  of  life  along 
her  keel. 


294 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


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Construction  of  Mode  and  Tense  Forms. 


295 


LESSON    139. 

PARSING. 

Direction. — Select  and  parse,  according  to  the  Model  below,  the 
verbs  in  the  sentences  of  Lesson  42.  For  the  agreement  of  verbs,  see 
Lesson  142. 

Model  for  Written  Parsing — Verbs, — The  Yankee,  selling  his 
farm,  wanders  away  to  seek  new  lands. 

CLASSIFICATION.  MODIFICATIONS.  STNTAX. 


Verbs. 
*  selling 
wanders 
♦seek 


Kind. 
Pr.  Par.,  Ir.,  Tr. 
Reg.,  Int 
Inf,  Ir, 


Tr. 


MODIFICATIONS. 

Voice. 

Mode. 

Tense. 

Num. 

Per. 

Act. 
Act. 

Ind. 

Pres. 

Sing. 

3d. 

Mod.  of  Yankee. 
Pred.  of  Yankee. 
Prin.  word  in  phraae 
Mod.  of  wanders. 


(See  Model  for  Written  Parsing  on  ooposite  page.) 


LESSON     14  0. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF    MODE    AND    TENSE    FORMS. 

Caution. — Be  careful  to  give  every  verb  its  proper  form 
and  meaning. 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  your  reasons  : — 

1.  I  done  it  myself.  2.  He  throwed  it  into  the  river,  for  I  seen  him 
when  he  done  it.  3.  She  sets  by  the  open  window  enjoying  the  scene 
that  lays  before  her. 

Explanation. — Lay  (to  place)  is  transitive,  lie  (to  rest)  is  intransi- 
tive ;  set  (to  place)  is  transitive,  sit  (to  rest)  is  intransitive.  Set  in 
some  of  its  meanings  is  intransitive. 

4.  The  tide  sits  in.     5.  Go  and  lay  down.     6.  The  sun  sits  in  the 


*  Participles  and  infinitives  have  neither  person  nor  niunber. 


296  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


west.  7.  I  remember  when  the  corner  stone  was  lain,  8.  Sit  the 
plates  on  the  table.  9.  He  sat  out  for  London  yesterday.  10.  Your 
dress  sets  well.  11.  The  bird  is  setting  on  its  eggs.  12.  I  laid  there 
an  hour.  13.  Set  down  and  talk  a  little  while.  14.  fie  has  laid,  there 
an  hour.  15.  I  am  setting  by  the  river.  16.  He  has  went  and  done 
it  without  my  permission.  17.  He  flew  from  justice.  18.  Some  valu- 
able land  was  overflown.  19.  She  come  just  after  you  left.  20.  They 
sung  a  new  tune  which  they  had  not  sang  before.  21.  The  water  I 
drunk  there  was  better  than  any  that  I  had  drank  before.  22.  The 
leaves  had  fell.  23.  I  had  rode  a  short  distance  when  the  storm  begun 
to  gather.  24.  I  found  the  water  froze.  25.  He  raised  up.  26.  He 
run  till  he  became  so  weary  that  he  was  forced  to  lay  down.  27.  1 
knowed  that  it  was  so,  for  I  seen  him  when  he  done  it.  28.  I  had 
began  to  think  that  you  had  forsook  us.  29.  I  am  afraid  that  I  cannot 
learn  him  to  do  it.  30.  I  guess  that  I  will  stop.  31.  I  expect  that  he 
has  gone  to  Boston.  32.  There  ain't  any  use  of  trying.  33.  I  have 
got  no  mother.  34.  Can  I  speak  to  you  ?  35.  He  had  ought  to  see 
him. 

Explanation. — As  ought  is  never  a  participle,  it  cannot  be  used 
after  had  to  form  a  compound  tense. 

Caution. — A  conditional  or  a  concessive  clause  takes  a 
verb  in  the  indicative  mode  when  the  action  or  being  is 
assumed  as  a  fact,  or  when  the  uncertainty  lies  merely  in 
the  speaker^s  knowledge  of  the  fact.  But  when  the  action 
or  being  in  such  a  clause  is  merely  thought  of  as  a  con- 
tingency, or  in  such  a  clause  the  speaker  prefers  to  put 
hypothetically  something  of  whose  truth  or  untruth  he  has 
no  doubt,  the  subjunctive  is  used.  The  subjunctive  is 
frequently  used  in  indirect  questions,  in  expressing  a  wish 


Construction  of  Mode  and  Tense  Forms.  297 


for  that  which  it  is  impossible  to  attain  at  once  or  at  all, 
and  instead  of  the  potential  mode  in  independent  clauses. 

Examples. — 1.  If  (=  since)  it  rains,  why  do  you  go  ? 

2.  If  it  rains  (now),  I  cannot  go  out. 

3.  If  it  rain,  the  work  will  be  delayed. 

4.  Though  it  rain  to-morrow,  we  must  march. 

5.  If  there   be  mountains,  there  must  be  valleys  be- 

tween. 

6.  Though  honey  be  sweet,  one  can't  make  a  meal  of  it. 

7.  If  my  friend  were  here,  he  would  enjoy  this. 

8.  Though  immortality  were  improbable,  we  should 

still  believe  in  it. 

9.  One  may  doubt  whether  the  best  men  be  known, 

10.  I  wish  the  lad  were  taller. 

11.  Oh  !  that  I  were  a  Samson  in  strength. 

12.  It  were  better  for  him  that  a  millstone  were  hanged 

about  his  neck. 

Explanation. — In  (1)  the  raining  is  assumed  as  a  fact.  In  (2)  the 
speaker  is  uncertain  of  the  fact.  In  the  conditional  clause  of  (3)  and 
in  the  concessive  clause  of  (4)  the  raining  is  thought  of  as  a  mere  con- 
tingency. The  speaker  is  certain  of  the  truth  of  what  is  hypothet- 
ically  expressed  in  the  conditional  clause  of  (5)  and  in  the  concessive 
clause  of  (6),  and  is  certain  of  the  untruth  of  what  is  hypothetically 
expressed  in  the  conditional  clause  of  (7)  and  in  the  concessive  clause 
of  (8).  There  is  an  indirect  question  in  (9),  a  wish  in  (10)  for  some- 
thing not  at  once  attainable  and  in  (11)  for  something  forever 
unattainable,  and  in  (12)  the  subjunctive  mode  is  used  in  place  of  the 
potential. 

Remarks. — When  there  is  doubt  as  to  whether  the  indicative  or 
the  subjunctive  mode  is  required,  use  the  indicative. 


298  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  present  subjunctive  forms  may  be  treated  as  infinitives  used  to 
complete  omitted  auxiliaries  ;  as,  If  it  {should)  rain,  the  work  will  be 
delayed  ;  Till  one  greater  man  {shall)  restore  us,  etc.  This  will  often 
serve  as  a  guide  in  distinguishing  the  indicative  from  the  subjunctive 
mode. 

If,  though,  lest,  unless,  etc.  are  usually  spoken  of  as  signs  of  the 
subjunctive  mode,  but  these  words  are  now  more  frequently  followed 
by  the  indicative  than  by  the  subjunctive. 

Direction. — Justify  the  mode  of  the  italicized  verbs  in  the  follow- 
ing sentences : — 

I.  If  this  were  so,  the  difficulty  would  vanish.  2.  If  he  was  there, 
I  did  not  see  him.      3.  If  to-morrow  he  fine,  I  will  walk  with  youx 

4.  Though  this  seems  improbable,   it  is  true.      5.  If  my  friend  is  in  ^ 
town,  he  will  call  this  evening.     6.  If  he  ever  comes,  we  shall  know  it,«_^ 

Explanation. — In  (6)  and  (7)  the  coming  is  referred  to  as  a  fact  to 
be  decided  in  future  time. 

7.  If  he  comes  by  noon,  let  me  know.  8.  The  ship  leaps,  as  it  were, 
from  billow  to  billow.  9.  Take  heed  that  thou  speak  not  to  Jacob. 
10.  If  a  pendulum  is  drawn  to  one  side,   it  will  swing  to  the  other. 

Explanation. — Be  is  often  employed  in  making  scientific  state- 
ments like  the  preceding,  and  may  therefore  be  allowed.  Jf  a  pendu- 
lum is  drawn  =  Whenever  a  pendulum  is  drawn. 

II.  I  wish  that  I  were  a  musician.  12.  Were  I  so  disposed,  I  could 
not  gratify  you.  13.  This  sword  shall  end  thee  unless  thou  yield.  14. 
Govern  well  thy  appetite,  lest  sin  surprise  thee.  15.  I  know  not 
whether  it  is  so  or  not.  16.  Would  he  were  fatter  !  17.  If  there 
were  no  light,  there  would  be  no  colors.  18.  Oh,  that  he  were  a  son 
of  mine  !  19.  Though  it  he  cloudy  to-night,  it  will  be  cold.  20. 
Though  the  whole  exceed  a  part,  we  sometimes  prefer  a  part  to  the 
whole.     21.  Whether  he  go  or  not,  I  must  be  there.     22.  Though  an 


Construction  of  Mode  and  Tense  Forms— Continued. 


angel  from  heaven  command  it,  we  should  not  steal.     23.  If  there  be 
an  eye,  it  was  made  to  see.     24.  It  were  well  it  were  done  quickly. 

Direction. — Supply  in  each  of  the  following  sentences  a  verb  in  the 
indicative  or  the  subjunctive  mode,  and  give  a  reason  for  yeur  choice: — 

1.  I  wish  it in  my  power  to  help  you.     2.  I  tremble  lest  he 

.     3.  If  he guilty,  the  evidence  does  not  show  it.     4.  He  de- 
serves our  pity,  unless  his  tale a  false  one.     5.  Though  he 

there,  I  did  not  see  him.     6.  If  he but  discreet,  he  will  succeed. 

7.  If  I he,  I  would  do  differently.     8.  If  ye men,  fight. 


LESSON     141. 

CONSTRUCTION  OF  MODE  AND  TENSE  FORMS- 
CONTINUED. 

Caution. — Be  careful  to  employ  the  tense  forms  of  the 
different  modes  in  accordance  with  their  meaning,  and  in 
such  a  way  as  to  preserve  the  proper  order  of  time. 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  your  reasons  ;— 

1.  That  custom  has  been  formerly  quite  popular.  2.  Neither  will 
they  be  persuaded,  though  one  rose  from  the  dead.  3.  He  that  was 
dead  sat  up  and  began  to  speak,  4.  A  man  bought  a  horse  for  one 
hundred  dollars  ;  and,  after  keeping  it  three  months,  at  an  expense  of 
ten  dollars  a  month,  he  sells  it  for  two  hundred  dollars.  What  per 
cent  does  he  gain  ?  5,  I  should  say  that  it  was  an  hour's  ride.  6.  If 
I  had  have  seen  him,  I  should  have  known  him.  7.  I  wish  I  was  in 
Dixie.  8.  We  should  be  obliged  if  you  will  favor  us  with  a  song.  9. 
I  intended  to  have  called. 

Explanation.— This  is  incorrect ;  it  should  be,  /  intended  to  call. 


yOO  Modifications  of  tine  Parts  of  Speech. 


The  act  of  calling  was  not  completed  at  the  time  indicated  by 
intended. 

Remark. — Verbs  of  commanding,  desiring,  expecting,  hoping,  in- 
tending, permitting,  etc.  are  followed  by  verbs  denoting  present  or 
future  time.* 

The  present  infinitive  expresses  an  action  as  present  or  future,  and 
the  present  perfect  expresses  it  as  completed,  at  the  time  indicated  by 
the  principal  verb.  I  am  glad  to  have  met  you  is  correct,  because  the 
meeting  took  place  before  the  time  of  being  glad. 

I  ought  to  have  gone  is  exceptional.  Ought  has  no  past  tense  form, 
and  so  the  present  perfect  infinitive  is  used  to  make  the  expression 
refer  to  past  time. 

10.  We  hoped  to  have  seen  you  often.  11.  I  should  not  have  let 
you  eaten  it.  12.  I  should  have  liked  to  have  seen  it.  13.  He  would 
not  have  dared  done  that.  14.  You  ought  to  have  helped  me  to  have 
done  it.  15.  We  expected  that  he  would  have  arrived  last  night.  16. 
The  experiment  proved  that  air  had  weight. 

Remark. — What  is  true  or  false  at  all  times  is  generally  expressed 
in  the  present  tense,  whatever  tense  precedes. 

There  seems  to  be  danger  of  applying  this  rule  too  rigidly.  When 
a  speaker  does  not  wish  to  vouch  for  the  truth  of  the  general  propo- 
sition, he  may  use  the  past  tense,  giving  it  the  form  of  an  indi- 

♦The  "  standard  Dictionary  "  makes  this  restriction:  "The  doubling  of  the  past 
tenses  in  connection  with  the  use  of  have  with  a  past  participle  is  proper  and  necessary 
when  the  completion  of  the  future  act  was  intended  before  the  occurrence  of  some- 
thing else  mentioned  or  thought  of.  Attention  to  this  qualification,  which  has  been 
overlooked  in  the  criticism  of  tense-formation  and  connection,  is  especially  important 
and  imperative.  If  one  says,  '  I  meant  to  have  visited  Paris  and  to  have  returned  to 
London  before  my  father  arrived  from  America,'  the  past  [present  perfect]  infinitive 
...  is  necessary  for  the  expression  of  the  completion  of  the  acts  purposed.  '  I 
meant  to  visit  Paris  and  to  return  to  London  before  my  father  arrived  from  America,' 
may  convey  suggestively  the  thought  intended,  but  does  not  express  it." 


Construction  of  Mode  and  Tense  Forms— Continued.  301 


rect  quotation  ;  as,  He  said  that  iron  was  the  most  valuable  of  metals. 
The  tense  of  the  dependent  verb  is  sometimes  attracted  into  that  of 
the  principal  verb  ;  as,  1  knew  where  the  place  was. 

17.  I  had  never  known  before  how  short  life  really  was.  18.  We 
then  fell  into  a  discussion  whether  there  is  any  beauty  independent  of 
utility.  The  General  maintained  that  there  was  not  ;  Dr.  Johnson 
maintained  that  there  was.  19.  I  have  already  told  you  that  I  was  a 
gentleman.     20.  Our  fathers  held  that  all  men  were  created  equal. 

Caution. — Use  tvill  and  ivould  to  imply  that  the  subject 
names  the  one  whose  will  controls  the  action  ;  use  sliall 
and  should  to  imply  that  the  one  named  by  the  subject  is 
under  the  control  of  external  influence. 

Remark. — The  original  meaning  of  shall  (to  owe,  to  he  obliged)  and 
will  (to  determine)  gives  us  the  real  key  to  their  pi'oper  use. 

The  only  case  in  which  some  trace  of  the  original  meaning  of  these 
auxiliaries  cannot  be  found  is  the  one  in  which  the  subject  of  will 
names  something  incapable  of  volition  ;  as.  The  wind  will  blow.  Even 
this  may  be  a  kind  of  personification. 

Sxamples. — I  shall  go  ;  You  will  go  ;  He  will  go.  These  are  the 
proper  forms  to  express  mere  futurity,  but  even  here  we  can  trace  the 
original  meaning  of  shall  and  will.  In  the  first  person  the  speaker 
avoids  egotism  by  referring  to  the  act  as  an  obligation  or  duty  rather 
than  as  something  under  the  control  of  his  own  will.  In  the  second 
and  third  persons  it  is  more  courteous  to  refer  to  the  will  of  others 
than  to  their  duty. 

1  will  go.  Here  the  action  is  under  the  control  of  the  speaker's  will. 
He  either  promises  or  determines  to  go. 

You  shall  go  ;  He  shall  go.  Here  the  speaker  either  promises  the 
going  or  determines  to  compel  these  persons  to  go  ;  in  either  case  the 
one  who  goes  is  under  some  external  influence. 


302  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Shall  I  go  9  Here  the  speaker  puts  himself  under  the  control  of 
some  external  influence — the  will  of  another. 

Will  I  go  ? — i.  e..  Is  it  my  will  to  go  ? — is  not  used  except  to  repeat 
another's  question.  It  would  be  absurd  for  one  to  ask  what  his  own 
will  is. 

Shall  you  go  ?  Ans.  I  shall.  Will  you  go  ?  Ans.  I  will.  Shall 
he  go  ?  Ans.  He  shall.  Will  he  go  ?  Ans.  He  ivill.  The  same 
auxiliary  is  used  in  the  question  that  is  used  in  the  answer. 

No  difficulty  shall  hinder  me.  The  difficulty  that  might  do  the 
hindering  is  not  to  be  left  to  itself,  but  is  to  be  kept  under  the  con- 
trol of  the  speaker. 

He  says  that  he  shall  go;  He  says  that  he  will  go.  Change  the 
indirect  quotations  introduced  by  that  to  direct  quotations,  and  the 
application  of  the  Caution  will  be  apparent. 

You  ivill  see  that  my  horse  is  at  the  door  by  nine  o'clock.  This  is 
only  an  apparent  exception  to  the  rule.  A  superior  may  courteously 
avoid  the  appearance  of  compulsion,  and  refer  to  his  subordinate's 
willingness  to  obey. 

They  knew  that  I  should  be  there,  and  that  he  would  he  there.  The 
same  principles  apply  to  should  and  would  that  apply  to  shall  and  will. 
In  this  example  the  events  are  future  as  to  past  time  ;  making  them 
future  as  to  present  time,  we  have,  They  know  that  I  shall  be  there, 
and  that  he  will  be  there. 

My  friend  said  that  he  should  not  set  out  to-morrow.  Change  the 
indirect  to  a  direct  quotation,  and  the  force  of  should  will  be  seen. 

Direction. — Assign  a  reason  for  the  use  of  shall  or  will  in 
each  of  the  following  sentences  : — 

1.  Hear  me,  for  I  will  speak.  3.  If  you  will  call,  I  shall  be  happy 
to  accompany  you.  3.  Shall  you  be  at  liberty  to-day  ?  4.  I  shall 
never  see  him  again.  5.  I  will  never  see  him  Vgain.  6.  I  said  that  he 
should  be  rewarded.     7.  Thou  shalt  surely  die.     8.  Truth,  crushed  to 


Construction  of  Number  and  Person  Forms. 


LESSON    142. 

CONSTRUCTION    OF   NUMBER   AND    PERSON    FORMS. 

AGREEMENT. — VERBS — PRONOUNS. 

Caution. — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  subject  in  num- 
ber and  person. 

Remarks. — Practically,  this  rule  applies  to  but  few  forms.  Are 
and  were  are  the  only  plural  forms  retained  by  the  English  verb.  In 
the  common  style,  most  verbs  have  one  person  form,  made  by  adding 
8  or  es  (has,  in  the  present  perfect  tense,  is  a  contraction  of  the  indica- 


? 


earth,  shall  rise  again.  9.  Though  I  should  die,  yet  will  I  not  deny 
thee.  10.  Though  I  should  receive  a  thousand  shekels  of  silver  in 
mine  hand,  yet  would  1  not  put  forth  my  hand  against  the  king's  son. 

Direction. — Fill  each  of  the  following  blanks  with  shall,  will, 
should,  or  would,  and  give  the  reasons  for  your  choice : — 

1.  He  knew  who betray  him.     2.  I be  fatigued  if  I  had 

walked  so  far.      3.  You  did  better  than  I have  done.     4.  If  he 

come  by  noon, you  be  ready  ?    5.  They  do  me  wrong,  and  I 

not  endure  it.     6.  I be  greatly  obliged  if  you do  me  the   J^ 

favor.     7.  If  I say  so,  I be  guilty  of  falsehood.     8.  You 

be  disappointed  if  you see  it.     9.  he  be  allowed  to  go  on  ? 

10. you  be  unhappy,  if  I  do  not  come  ? 

Direction. — Correct  the  following  errors,  and  give  your  reasons  : — 

1.  Where  will  I  leave  you  ?  2.  Will  I  be  in  time  ?  3.  It  was  re- 
quested that  no  person  would  leave  his  seat.  4.  They  requested  that 
the  appointment  would  be  given  to  a  man  who  should  be  known  to  his 
party.  5.  When  will  we  get  through  this  tedious  controversy  ?  6.  I 
think  we  will  have  rain. 


304  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


tive  present — ha{ve)s).  The  verb  be  has  am  (first  person)  and  is  (third, 
person). 

In  the  solemn  style,  the  second  person  singular  takes  the  ending  est, 
St,  or  t,  and,  in  the  indicative  present,  the  third  person  singular  adds 
eth.     (See  Lessons  134  and  135.) 

Need  and  dare,  when  followed  by  an  infinitive  without  to,  are  gener- 
ally used  instead  of  needs  and  dares  ;  as.  He  need  not  do  it  ;  He  dare 
not  do  it. 

Caution. — A  collective  noun  requires  a  verb  in  the 
plural  when  the  individuals  in  the  collection  are  thought 
of ;  but,  when  the  collection  as  a  whole  is  thought  of,  the 
verb  should  be  singular. 

^Examples. — 1.  The  multitude  were  of  one  mind.  2.  The  multitude 
was  too  large  to  number.  3.  A  number  were  inclined  to  turn  back. 
4.  The  number  present  was  not  ascertained. 

Caution. — When  a  verb  has  two  or  more  subjects  con- 
nected by  and,  it  must  agree  with  them  in  the  plural. 

Exceptions. — 1,  When  the  connected  subjects  are  different  names 
of  the  same  thing,  or  when  they  name  several  things  taken  as  one 
whole,  the  verb  must  be  singular  ;  as,  My  old  friend  and  schoolmate 
is  in  town.     Bread  and  milk  is  excellent  food. 

2.  When  the  connected  subjects  are  preceded  by  each,  every,  many 
a,  or  no,  they  are  taken  separately,  and  the  verb  agrees  with  the  near- 
est ;  as,  Every  man,  woman,  and  child  was  lost. 

3.  When  the  subjects  are  emphatically  distinguished,  the  verb 
agrees  with  the  first  and  is  understood  with  the  second ;  as,  Time,  and 
patience  also,  is  needed.  (The  same  is  true  of  subjects  connected  by 
cbs  well  as  ;  as.  Time,  as  well  as  patience,  is  needed.) 

4.  When  one  of  the  subjects  is  affirmative  and  the  other  negative, 


Construction  of  Number  and  Person  Forms.  305 


the  verb  agrees  with  the  affirmative  ;   as,   Books,   and  not  pleasure, 
occupy  his  time. 

5.  When  several  subjects  follow  the  verb,  each  subject  may  be 
emphasized  by  making  the  verb  agree  with  that  which  stands  nearest ; 
as,  Thine  is  the  kingdom  and  the  power  and  the  glory. 

Remark. — When  one  of  two  or  more  subjects  connected  by  and  is 
of  the  first  person,  the  verb  is  in  the  first  person ;  when  one  of  the  sub- 
jects is  of  the  second  person,  and  none  of  the  first,  the  verb  is  in  the 
second  person.  /,  you,  and  he  =  we  ;  you  and  he  =  you.  We  say, 
Mary  and  I  shall  (not  vrill)  be  busy  to-morrow. 

Caution. — When  two  or  more  subjects  are  connected  by 
or  or  nor,  the  verb  agrees  in  person  and  number  with  the 
nearest  ;  as,  Neither  poverty  nor  wealth  was  desired  ; 
Neither  he  nor  they  ivere  satisfied. 

When  the  subjects  require  different  forms  of  the  verb,  it 
is  generally  better  to  express  the  verb  with  each  subject  or 
to  recast  the  sentence. 

Remarks. — When  a  singular  and  a  plural  subject  are  used,  the 
plural  subject  is  generally  placed  next  to  the  verb. 

In  using  pronouns  of  different  persons,  it  is  generally  more  polite 
for  the  speaker  to  mention  the  one  addressed  first,  and  himself  last, 
except  when  he  confesses  a  fault. 

Caution. — A  pronoun  must  agree  with  its  antecedent  in 
number,  gender,  and  person  ;  as,  Thon  v^io  loritest ;  He 
who  writes  ;   They  ivho  write,  etc. 

The  three  special  Cautions  given  above  for  the  agree- 
ment of  the  verb  will  also  aid  in  determining  the  agreement 

of  the  pronoun  with  its  antecedent. 
20 


306  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Hemarks. — The  pronoun  and  the  verb  of  an  adjective  clause  relat- 
ing to  the  indefinite  subject  it  take,  by  attraction,  the  person  and 
number  of  the  complement  when  this  complement  immediately  pre- 
cedes the  adjective  clause  ;  as,  It  is  I  that  am  in  the  wrong  ;  It  is 
thou  that  liftest  me  up  ;  It  is  the  dews  and  showers  that  make  the 
grass  grow. 

The  pronoun  you,  even  when  singular,  requires  a  plural  verb. 

pirection. — Justify  the  use  of  the  following  italicized  verbs  and 
pronouns : — 

1.  Books  is  a  noun.  2.  The  good  are  great.  3.  The  committee 
were  unable  to  agree,  and  they  asked  to  be  discharged.  4.  The  House 
has  decided  not  to  allow  its  members  the  privilege.  5.  Three  times 
four  ts  twelve.*  6.  Five  dollars  »s  not  too  much.  7.  Twice  as  much 
is  too  much.  8.  Two  hours  is  a  long  time  to  wait.  9.  To  relieve  the 
wretched  was  his  pride.  10.  To  profess  and  to  possess  are  two  dif- 
ferent things.  11.  Talking  and  eloquence  are  not  the  same.  12.  The 
tongs  are  not  in  their  place.  13.  Every  one  is  accountable  for  his  own 
acts.  14.  Every  book  and  every  paper  was  found  in  its  place.  15. 
Not  a  loud  voice,  but  strong  proofs  bring  conviction.  16.  This  orator 
and  statesman  has  gone  to  his  rest.  17.  Young's  "  Night  Thoughts" 
is  his  most  celebrated  poetical  work.  18.  Flesh  and  blood  hath  not 
revealed  it.  19.  The  hue  and  cry  of  the  country  pursues  him.  20. 
The  second  and  the  third  Epistle  of  John  contain  each  a  single  chap- 
ter, 21.  Man  is  masculine  because  it  denotes  a  male.  22.  Therein 
consists  the  force  and  use  and  nature  of  language.  23.  Neither  wealth 
nor  wisdom  is  the  chief  thing.  24.  Either  you  or  I  am  right.  25. 
Neither  you  nor  he  is  to  blame.     26.  John,   and  his  sister  also,  is 

*  "  Three  times  four  is  twelve  "  and  "  Three  times  four  are  twelve  "  are  both  used, 
and  both  are  defended.  The  question  is  (see  Caution  for  collective  nouns),  Is  the  num- 
ber four  thought  of  as  a  whole,  or  are  the  individual  units  composing  it  thought  of  ? 
The  expression  =  Four  taken  three  times  is  twelve.     Times  is  a  noun  used  adverbially. 


Construction  of  Number  and  Person  Fornns.         307 


going.  27.  The  lowest  mechanic,  as  well  as  the  richest  citizen,  is  here 
protected  in  Ms  right.  28.  There  are  one  or  two  reasons.*  29.  Nine 
o'clock  and  forty-five  minutes  is  fifteen  minutes  of  ten.  30.  Mexican 
figures,  or  picture-writing,  represent  things,  not  words,  f  31.  Many  a 
kind  word  and  many  a  kind  act  has  been  put  to  his  credit. 

Direction. — Connect  the  following  errors,  and  give  your  reasons  : — 

1.  Victuals  are  always  plural.  2.  Plutarch's  "Parallel  Lives  "are 
his  great  work.  3.  What  sounds  have  each  of  the  vowels  ?  4.  *'  No, 
no,"  says  I.  5.  "We  agree,"  says  they.  6.  Where  was  you  ?  7.  Every 
one  of  these  are  good  in  their  place.  8.  Neither  of  them  have  recited 
their  lesson.  9.  There  comes  the  boys.  10.  Each  of  these  expressions 
denote  action.  11.  One  of  you  are  mistaken.  12.  There  is  several 
reasons  for  this.  13.  The  assembly  was  divided  in  its  opinion.  14. 
The  public  is  invited  to  attend.  15.  The  committee  were  full  when 
this  point  was  decided.  16.  The  nation  are  prosperous.  17.  Money, 
as  well  as  men,  were  needed.  18.  Now,  boys,  I  want  every  one  of  you 
to  decide  for  themselves.  19.  Neither  the  intellect  nor  the  heart  are 
capable  of  being  driven.  20.  She  fell  to  laughing  like  one  out  of  their 
right  mind.  21.  Five  years'  interest  are  due.  22.  Three  quarters  of 
the  men  was  discharged.  23.  Nine-tenths  of  every  man's  happiness 
depend  upon  this.  24.  No  time,  no  money,  no  labor,  were  spared. 
25.  One  or  the  other  have  erred  in  their  statement.  26.  Why  are  dust 
and  ashes  proud  ?  27.  Either  the  master  or  his  servants  is  to  blame. 
28.  Neither  the  servants  nor  their  master  are  to  blame.  29.  Our  wel- 
fare and  security  consists  in  unity.  30.  The  mind,  and  not  the  body, 
sin.  31.  He  don't  like  it.  32.  Many  a  heart  and  home  have  been 
desolated  by  drink. 

*  When  two  adjectives  differing  in  number  are  connected  without  a  repetition  of  the 
noun,  the  tendency  is  to  make  the  verb  agree  with  the  noun  expressed. 

t  The  verb  here  agrees  with  figures.,  as  picture-writing  is  logically  explanatory  of 
Jigures. 


308 


Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


GENERAL    REVIEW. 

To  THE  Teachbb.— See  suggestions  to  the  teacher,  page  255. 
Scheme  for  the  Verb. 
{The  numbers  refer  to  Lessons.) 


Uses. 


Classes. 


To  assert  action,  being,  or  state. — Predicate  (4,  11). 
To  assume  action,  being,  or  state.  \  l^^^il^^l^S: 


Form. 


Meaning. 


i  Regular  (92). 

■<  Irregular  (92,  132,  133). 

(  (Redundant  and  Defective.) 

j  Transitive  (92). 
\  Intransitive  (92). 


Modifications. 


Participles.- 


Infinitives. — 


Voice. 


Mode. 


Tense. 


Number. 


Person. 


Classes. 


S  Active  (129,  1.30). 
'{  Passive  (129,  130). 

rindicative  (131,  134-137). 
J  Potential  (131,  134-137). 
1  Subjunctive  (131,  134-1.37,  140). 
[imperative  (131,  134-137). 


'  Present. 
Past. 
Future. 

Present  Perfect. 
Past  Perfect. 
Future  Perfect. 


131,    134-138, 
140,  141. 


\  Singular.  ) 
\  Plural.      f 


131,  134,  135. 


(  First. 
\  Second. 
Third. 


[•  131, 


134,  135. 


{Present. 
Past.  }  131,  134-136. 

Past  Perfect. 

j  Present.  )  ,_,    ,_.    ,__ 

i  Present  Perfect,   f  ^^^'  ^^^'  ^^^ 


Review  Questions.  809 

Questions   on   the   Verb. 

1.  Define  the  verb  and  its  classes. — Lessons  92,  132. 

2.  Define  the  modifications  of  the  verb. — Lessons  129,  131. 

S.  Define  the  several  voices,  modes,  and  tenses. — Lessons  129,  131. 

4.  Define  the  participle  and  its  classes. — Lesson  131. 

5.  Define  the  infinitive. — Lesson  131. 

6.  Give  a  synopsis  of  a  regular  and  of  an  irregular  verb  in  all  the 
different  forms.— Lessons  134,  135,  136,  137. 

7.  Analyze  the  different  mode  and  tense  forms,  and  give  the  func- 
tions of  the  different  tenses.— Lesson  138. 

8.  Give  and  illustrate  the  principles  which  guide  in  the  use  of  the 
mode  and  tense  forms,  and  of  the  person  and  number  forms.— Lessons 
140,  141,  142. 


LESSON      143. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

Lesson  112. — What  are  Modifications  ?  Have  English  words  many 
inflections  ?  Have  they  lost  any  ?  What  is  Number  ?  Define  the 
singular  and  the  plural  number.  How  is  the  plural  of  nouns  regu- 
larly formed  ?  In  what  ways  may  the  plural  be  formed  irregularly  ? 
Illustrate. 

Lesson  113. — Give  the  plural  of  some  nouns  adopted  from  other  lan- 
guages. How  do  compounds  form  the  plural  ?  Illustrate  the  several 
ways.     How  do  letters,  figures,  etc.  form  the  plural  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  114. — Give  examples  of  nouns  having  each  two  plurals  differ- 
ing in  meaning.  Some  which  have  the  same  form  in  both  numbers. 
Some  which  have  no  plural.  Some  which  are  always  plural.  What  is 
said  of  the  number  of  collective  nouns  ? 

Lesson  116.— In  what  four  ways  may  the  number  of  nouns  be 
determined  ?    Illustrate. 


310  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Lesson  117. — What  is  Gender  ?  Define  the  different  genders. 
What  is  the  difference  between  sex  and  gender  ?  The  gender  of  Eng- 
lish nouns  follows  what  ?  Have  English  nouns  a  neuter  form  ?  Have 
all  English  nouns  a  masculine  and  a  feminine  form  ?  In  what. three 
ways  may  the  masculine  of  nouns  be  distinguished  from  the  femi- 
nine ?     Illustrate.     Give  the  three  gender  forms  of  the  pronoun. 

Lesson  118. — How  is  gender  in  grammar  important  ?  When  is  the 
pronoun  of  the  masculine  gender  used  ?  When  is  the  neuter  pronoun 
it  used  ?  By  the  aid  of  what  pronouns  are  inanimate  things  person- 
ified ?  In  personification,  when  is  the  masculine  pronoun  used,  and 
when  is  the  feminine  ?  Illustrate.  What  is  the  Caution  relating  to 
gender  ? 

Lesson  119. — What  is  Person  ?  Is  the  person  of  nouns  marked  by 
form  ?  Define  the  three  persons.  When  is  a  noun  in  the  first  per- 
son ?  In  the  second  person  ?  What  classes  of  words  have  distinctive 
person  forms  ?  Why  is  person  regarded  in  grammar  ?  What  is 
Case  ?  Define  the  three  cases.  What  is  the  case  of  a  noun  used  inde- 
pendently ?  Of  an  explanatory  modifier  ?  Of  an  objective  comple- 
ment ?  Of  a  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  attribute  complement  ?  Illus- 
trate all  these. 

Lesson  121.— What  is  Parsing  ?    Illustrate  the  parsing  of  nouns. 


LESSON     144. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

Lesson  122.— How  many  case  forms  have  nouns,  and  what  are  they  ? 
How  is  the  possessive  of  nouns  in  the  singular  formed  ?  Of  nouns  in 
the  plural  ?  Illustrate.  What  is  the  possessive  sign  ?  To  which 
word  of  compound  names  or  of  groups  of  words  treated  as  such  is  the 


Review  Questions.  311 


sign  added  ?    Illustrate.     Instead  of  the  possessive  form,  what  may- 
be used  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  123. — In  what  case  alone  can  mistakes  in  the  construction  of 
nouns  occur  ?    Illustrate  the  Cautions  relating  to  possessive  forms. 

Lesson  124. — What  is  Declension  ?  Decline  girl  and  tooth.  Decline 
the  several  personal  pronouns,  the  relative  and  the  interrogative. 
What  adjective  pronouns  are  declined  wholly  or  in  part  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  125. — What  words  in  the  language  have  each  three  different 
case  forms  ?  What  are  the  nominative,  and  what  the  objective,  forms 
of  the  pronouns  ? 

Lesson  127. — What  one  modification  have  adjectives  ?  What  is 
Comparison  ?  Define  the  three  degrees.  How  are  adj^tives  regularly 
compared  ?  What  are  the  Rules  for  Spelling  ?  Illustrate  them. 
How  are  adjectives  of  more  than  one  syllable  generally  compared  ? 
How  are  degrees  of  diminution  expressed  ?  Can  all  adjectives  be  com- 
pared ?  Illustrate.  How  are  some  adverbs  compared  ?  Illustrate  the 
irregular  comparison  of  adjectives  and  adverbs. 

Lesson  128. — To  how  many  things  does  the  comparative  degree  re- 
fer ?  What  does  it  imply  ?  Explain  the  office  of  the  superlative. 
What  word  usually  follows  the  comparative,  and  what  the  superlative  ? 
Give  the  Cautions  relating  to  the  use  of  comparatives  and  superlatives, 
and  illustrate  them  fully. 

Lesson  129.— What  is  Voice  ?  Of  what  class  of  verbs  is  it  a  modifi- 
cation ?  Name  and  define  the  two  voices.  When  is  the  one  voice 
used,  and  when  the  other  ?  Into  what  may  the  passive  form  be  re- 
solved ?  Illustrate.  What  may  be  mistaken  for  a  verb  in  the  passive 
voice  ?    Illustrate. 

Lesson  130. — In  changing  a  verb  from  the  active  to  the  passive, 
what  does  the  object  complement  become  ?  How  may  an  intransitive 
verb  sometimes  be  made  transitive  ?    Illustrate. 


312  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


LESSON     145. 

REVIEW    QUESTIONS. 

Lesson  131. — "What  is  Mode  ?  Define  the  four  modes.  "What  is 
Tense  ?  Define  the  six  tenses.  Define  the  infinitive.  Define  the  par- 
ticiple. Define  the  classes  of  participles.  "What  are  the  number  and 
person  of  a  verb  ? 

Lesson  132. — "What  is  Conjugation  ?  Synopsis  ?  "What  are  auxil- 
iary verbs  ?  Name  them.  What  are  the  principal  parts  of  a  verb  ? 
"What  are  redundant  and  what  are  defective  verbs  ? 

Lesson  134.-«-IIow  many  inflectional  forms  may  irregular  verbs 
have  ?  How  many  have  regular  verbs  ?  What  is  said  of  the  sub- 
junctive mode  ?  Of  to  with  the  infinitive  ?  How  is  a  verb  conju- 
gated in  the  emphatic  form  ? 

Lesson  136. — How  is  a  verb  conjugated  in  the  progressive  form  ? 
How  is  a  transitive  verb  conjugated  in  the  passive  voice  ?  Give  an 
example  of  a  verb  in  the  progressive  form  with  a  passive  meaning. 
"What  does  the  progressive  form  denote  ?  Can  all  verbs  be  conjugated 
in  this  form  ?  "Why  ?  Give  all  the  participles  of  the  verbs  choose^ 
hredk,  drive,  read,  lift. 

Lesson  137. — How  may  a  verb  be  conjugated  interrogatively?  Neg- 
atively ?  Illustrate.  How  may  a  question  with  negation  be  expressed 
in  the  indicative  and  potential  modes  ? 

Lesson  138. — Into  what  may  the  compound,  or  periphrastic,  forms 
of  the  verb  be  resolved  ?  Illustrate  fully.  What  is  said  of  the  parti- 
ciple in  have  written,  had  written,  etc.  ?  Give  and  illustrate  the  several 
uses  of  the  six  tenses. 

Lesson  140. — Show  how  the  general  Caution  for  the  use  of  the  verb 
is  frequently  violated.    When  does  a  conditional  or  a  concessive  clause 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  313 


require  the  verb  to  be  in  the  indicative  ?  Illustrate.  When  is  the 
subjunctive  used  ?    Illustrate  the  many  uses  of  the  subjunctive. 

Lesson  141. — Give  and  illustrate  the  general  Caution  relating  to 
mode  and  tense  forms.  Give  and  illustrate  the  Caution  in  regard  to 
will  and  would,  shall  and  should. 

Lesson  142. — Give  and  illustrate  the  Cautions  relating  to  the  agree- 
ment of  verbs  and  pronouns.  Illustrate  the  exceptions  and  the  Re- 
marks. 


ADDITIONAL    EXAMPLES    FOR    ANALYSIS. 
Suggestions  for  the  Study  of  the  following  Selections. 

To  THE  Teacher.— The  pupil  has  now  reached  a  point  where  he  can  afford  to  drop 
the  diagram— its  raiseion  for  him  is  fulfilled.  For  him  to  continue  its  use  with  these 
"Additional  Examples,"  unless  it  be  to  outline  the  relations  of  clauses  or  illustrate 
peculiar  constructions,  is  needless  ;  he  will  merely  be  repeating  that  with  which  he  is 
already  familiar. 

These  extracts  are  not  given  for  full  analysis  or  parsing.  This,  also,  the  pupil 
would  find  profitless,  and  for  the  same  reason.  One  gains  nothing  in  doing  what  he 
already  does  well  enough— progress  is  not  made  in  climbing  the  wheel  of  a  treadmill. 
But  the  pupil  may  here  review  what  has  been  taught  him  of  the  uses  of  adjective  pro- 
nouns, of  the  relatives  in  restrictive  and  in  unrestrictive  clauses,  of  certain  idioms,  of 
double  negatives,  of  the  split  infinitive,  of  the  subjunctive  mode,  of  the  distinctions  in 
meaning  between  allied  verbs,  as  lie  and  lay,  of  certain  prepositions,  of  punctuation, 
etc.  He  should  study  the  general  character  of  each  sentence,  its  divisions  and  sub- 
divisions, the  relations  of  the  independent  and  the  dependent  parts,  and  their  connec- 
tion, order,  etc.  He  should  note  the  periodic  structure  of  some  of  these  sen- 
tences—of (4)  or  (19),  for  instance— the  meaning  of  which  remains  in  suspense  till 
near  or  at  the  close.  He  should  note  in  contrast  the  loose  structure  of  others — 
for  example,  the  last  sentence  in  (20) — a  sentence  that  has  several  points  at  any  one  of 
which  a  complete  thought  has  been  expressed,  but  the  part  of  the  sentence  following 
does  not,  by  itself,  make  complete  sense.  Let  him  try  to  see  which  structure  is  the 
more  natural,  and  which  is  the  more  forcible,  and  why ;  and  what  style  gains  by  a 
judicious  blending  of  the  two. 

Especially  should  the  pupil  look  at  the  thought  in  these  prose  extracts  and  at  the 
manner  in  which  it  is  expressed.    This  will  lead  him  to  take  a  step  or  two  over  into 


314  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


the  field  of  literature.  If  the  attempt  is  made,  one  condition  seems  imperative— the 
pupil  should  thoroughly  understand  what  the  author  says.  We  know  no  better  way 
to  secure  this  than  to  exact  of  him  a  careful  reproduction  in  his  own  words  of  the 
author's  thought.  This  will  reveal  to  him  the  differences  between  his  work  and  the 
original ;  and  bring  into  relief  the  peculiarity  of  each  author's  style— the  stateliness  of 
De  Quincey's,  for  instance,  the  vividness  of  Webster's,  the  oratorical  character  of 
Macaulay's,  the  ruggedness  of  Carlyle's,  the  poetical  beauty  of  Emerson's,  the  humor 
of  Irving's,  and  the  brilliancy  of  Holmes's— the  last  lines  from  whom  are  purposely 
stilted,  as  we  learn  from  the  context. 

The  pupil  may  see  how  ellipses  and  transpositions  and  imagery  abound  in  poetry, 
and  how,  in  the  use  of  these  particulars,  poets  differ  from  each  other.  He  may  note 
that  poems  are  not  pitched  in  the  same  key— that  the  extracts  from  Wordsworth  and 
Goldsmith  and  Cowper,  for  example,  deal  with  common  facts  and  in  a  homely  way,  that 
the  one  from  Lowell  is  in  a  higher  key,  while  that  from  Shelley  is  all  imagination,  and 
is  crowded  with  audacious  imagery,  all  exquisite  except  in  the  first  line,  where  the 
moon,  converted  by  metaphor  into  a  maiden,  has  that  said  of  her  that  is  inconsistent 
with  her  in  her  new  character. 

1.  It  is  thought  by  some  people  that  all  those  stars  which  you  see 
glittering  so  restlessly  on  a  ke'en,  frosty  night  in  a  high  latitude,  and 
which  seem  to  have  been  sown  broadcast  with  as  much  carelessness  as 
grain  lies  on  a  threshing-floor^  here  showing  vast  zaarahs  of  desert 
blue  sky,  there  again  lying  close,  and  to  some  eyes  presenting 

"The  beauteous  semblance  of  a  flock  at  rest," 

are,  in  fact,  gathered  into  zones  or  strata ;  that  o»r  own  wicked  little 
earthy,  with  the  whole  of  our  peculiar  solar  system,  is  a  part  of  such  a 
zone  ;  and  that  all  this  perfect  geometry  of  the  heavens,  these  radii  in 
the  mighty  wheel,  would  become  apparent,  if  we,  the  spectators,  could 
but  survey  it  from  the  true  center  ;  which  center  may  be  far  too  dis- 
tant for  any  vision  of  man,  naked  or  armed,  to  reach. f-De  Quincey. 

2.  On  this  question  of  principle,  while  actual  suffering  was  yet  afar 
off,  they  [our  fathers]  raised  their  flag  against  a  power  to  which,  for 
purposes  of  foreign  conquest  and  subjugation,  Rome,  in  the  height  of 
her  glory,  is  not  to  be  compared — a  power  which  has  dotted  over  the 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  315 


surface  of  the  whole  globe  with  her  possessions  and  military  posts  ; 
whose  morning  drum-beat,  following  the  sun  and  keeping  company 
with  the  hours,  circles  the  earth  with  one  continuous  and  unbroken 
strain  of  the  martial  airs  of  England. — Webster. 

3.  In  some  far-away  and  yet  undreamt-of  hour,  I  can  even  imagine 
that  England  may  cast  all  thoughts  of  possessive  wealth  back  to  the 
barbaric  nations  among  whom  they  first  arose  ;  and  that,  while  the 
sands  of  the  Indus  and  adamant  of  Golconda  may  yet  stiffen  the  hous- 
ings of  the  charger  and  flash  from  the  turban  of  the  slave,  she,  as  a 
Christian  mother,  may  at  last  attain  to  the  virtues  and  the  treasures  of 
a  Heathen  one,  and  be  able  to  lead  forth  her  Sons,  saying,  ' '  These  are 
my  Jewels." — Buskin. 

4.  And,  when  those  who  have  rivaled  her  [Athens's]  greatness  shall 
have  shared  her  fate  ;  when  civilization  and  knowledge  shall  have 
lixed  their  abode  in  distant  continents  ;  when  the  scepter  shall  have 
passed  away  from  England  ;  when,  perhaps,  travelers  from  distant 
regions  shall  in  vain  labor  to  decipher  on  some  moldering  pedestal 
the  name  of  our  proudest  chief,  shall  hear  savage  hymns  chanted  to 
some  misshapen  idol  over  the  ruined  dome  of  our  proudest  temple,  and 
shall  see  a  single  naked  fisherman  wash  his  nets  in  the  river  of  the  ten 
thousand  masts, — her  influence  and  her  glory  will  still  survive,  fresh 
in  eternal  youth,  exempt  from  mutability  and  decay,  immortal  as  the 
intellectual  principle  from  which  they  derived  their  origin,  and  over 
which  they  exercise  their  control. — Macaulay. 

6.    To  him  who  in  the  love  of  Nature  holds 

Communion  with  her  visible  forms,  she  speaks 
A  various  language  ;   for  his  gayer  hours 
She  has  a  voice  of  gladness  and  a  smile 
And  eloquence  of  beauty,  and  she  glides 
Into  his  darker  musings  with  a  mild 


316  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


And  healing  sympathy,  that  steals  away 

Their  sharpness  ere  he  is  aware.     When  thoughts 

Of  the  last,  bitter  hour  come  like  a  blight 

Over  thy  spirit,  and  sad  images 

Of  the  stern  agony  and  shroud  and  pall 

And  breathless  darkness  and  the  narrow  house 

Make  thee  to  shudder  and  grow  sick  at  heart, — 

Go  forth  under  the  open  sky,  and  list  ^ 

To  Nature's  teachings,  while  from  all  around— 

Earth  and  her  waters  and  the  depths  of  air — 

Comes  a  still  voice. — Bryant. 

6.    Pleasant  it  was,  when  woods  were  green, 

And  winds  were  soft  and  low. 
To  lie  amid  some  sylvan  scene, 
Where,  the  long  drooping  boughs  between, 
Shadows  dark  and  sunlight  sheen 

Alternate  come  and  go  ; 
Or  where  the  denser  grove  receives 

No  sunlight  from  above, 
But  the  dark  foliage  interweaves 
In  one  unbroken  roof  of  leaves. 
Underneath  whose  sloping  eaves 

The  shadows  hardly  move. — Longfellow. 

7.  I  like  the  lad  who,  when  his  father  thought 
To  clip  his  morning  nap  by  hackneyed  praise 
Of  vagrant  worm  by  early  songster  caught, 

Cried,  "Served  him  right  !  'tis  not  at  all  surprising  ; 
The  worm  was  punished,  sir,  for  early  rising."— >SflKC«. 

8.  There  were  communities,  scarce  known  by  name 
In  these  degenerate  days,  but  once  far-famed, 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  317 


Where  liberty  and  justice,  hand  in  hand, 

Ordered  the  common  weal  ;  where  great  men  grew 

Up  to  their  natural  eminence,  and  none 

Saving  the  wise,  just,  eloquent,  were  great  ; 

Where  power  was  of  God's  gift  to  whom  he  gave 

Supremacy  of  merit — the  sole  means 

And  broad  highway  to  power,  that  ever  then 

Was  meritoriously  administered. 

Whilst  all  its  instruments,  from  first  to  last. 

The  tools  of  state  for  service  high  or  low. 

Were  chosen  for  their  aptness  to  those  ends 

Which  virtue  meditates. — Henry  Taylor. 

%      . 

9,  Stranger,  these  gloomy  boughs 

Had  charms  for  him  ;  and  here  he  loved  to  sit. 
His  only  visitant  a  straggling  sheep, 
The  stone-chat,  or  the  glancing  sand-piper  ; 
And  on  these  barren  rocks,  with  fern  and  heath 
And  juniper  and  thistle  sprinkled  o'er. 
Fixing  his  downcast  eye,  he  many  an  hour 
A  morbid  pleasure  nourished,  tracing  here 
An  emblem  of  his  own  unfruitful  life  ; 
And,  lifting  up  his  head,  he  then  would  gaze 
On  the  more  distant  scene, — how  lovely 'tis 
Thou  seest, — and  he  would  gaze  till  it  became 
Far  lovelier,  and  his  heart  could  not  sustain 
The  beauty,  still  more  beauteous.  —  Wordsworth. 

10.    But,  when  the  next  sun  brake  from  underground, 
Then,  those  two  brethren  slowly  with  bent  brows 
Accompanying,  the  sad  chariot-bier 
Past  like  a  shadow  thro'  the  field,  that  shone 


318  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


Full-summer,  to  that  stream  whereon  the  barge, ' 

Pall'd  all  its  length  in  blackest  samite,  lay. 

There  sat  the  life-long  creature  of  the  house. 

Loyal,  the  dumb  old  servitor,  on  deck. 

Winking  his  eyes,  and  twisted  all  his  face. 

So  those  two  brethren  from  the  chariot  took 

And  on  the  black  decks  laid  her  in  her  bed. 

Set  in  her  hand  a  lily,  o'er  her  hung 

The  silken  case  with  braided  blazonings, 

And  kiss'd  her  quiet  brows,  and,  saying  to  her, 

"Sister,  farewell  forever,"  and  again, 

"Farewell,  sweet  sister,"  parted  all  in  tears. — Tennyson. 

11.    Good  name  in  man  and  woman,  dear  my  lord, 
Is  the  immediate  jewel  of  their  souls. 

Who  steals  my  purse  steals  trash  ;  't  is  something,  nothing 
'T  was  mine,  't  is  his,  and  has  been  slave  to  thousands  : 
But  he  that  filches  from  me  my  good  name 
Robs  me  of  that  which  not  enriches  him. 
And  makes  me  poor  indeed. — Shakespeare. 

12.    When  I  consider  how  ray  light  is  spent 

Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and  wide, 

And  that  one  talent,  which  is  death  to  hide,  \ 

Lodged  with  me  useless,  though  my  soul  more  bent 

To  serve  therewith  my  Maker,  and  present 

My  true  account,  lest  he,  returning,  chide, — 

* '  Doth  God  exact  day-labor,  light  denied  ?  " 

I  fondly  ask  :  but  Patience,  to  prevent 

That  murmur,  soon  replies,  "God  doth  not  need 

Either  man's  work  or  his  own  gifts  ;  who  best 

Bear  his  mild  yoke,  viey  serve  him  best :  his  state 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  319 


Is  kingly  ;  thousands  at  his  bidding  speed, 
And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest ; 
They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait." 

— Milton. — Sonnet  on  his  Blindness. 

13.   Ah !  on  Thanksgiving  Day,  when  from  East  and  from  West, 
From  North  and  from  South  come  the  pilgrim  and  guest  ; 
When  the  gray-haired  New-Englander  sees  round  his  board 
The  old  broken  links  of  affection  restored  ; 
When  the  care- wearied  man  seeks  his  mother  once  more, 
And  the  worn  matron  smiles  where  the  girl  smiled  before,— 
What  moistens  the  lip,  and  what  brightens  the  eye  ? 
What  calls  back  the  past  like  the  rich  pumpkin-pie  ? 

—  Whittier. 

14.  That  orbed  maiden  with  white  fire  laden, 
-    Whom  mortals  call  the  moon, 

Glides  glimmering  o'er  my  fleece-like  floor. 

By  the  midnight  breezes  strewn  ; 
And  wherever  the  beat  of  her  unseen  feet. 

Which  only  the  angels  hear, 
May  have  broken  the  woof  of  my  tent's  thin  roof. 

The  stars  peep  behind  her  and  peer  ; 
And  I  laugh  to  see  them  whirl  and  flee 

Like  a  swarm  of  golden  bees, 
When  I  widen  the  rent  in  my  wind-built  tent. 

Till  the  calm  rivers,  lakes,  and  seas, 
Like  strips  of  the  sky  fallen  through  me  on  high, 

Are  each  paved  with  the  moon  and  these. 

—Shelley. ^The  Cloud. 

15.  Sweet  was  the  sound,  when  oft,  at  evening's  close, 
Up  yonder  hill  the  village  murmur  rose. 


320  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech. 


There,  as  I  passed  with  careless  steps  and  slow, 
The  mingling  notes  came  softened  from  below  ; 
The  swain  responsive  as  the  milk-maid  sung, 
The  sober  herd  that  lowed  to  meet  their  young, 
The  noisy  geese  that  gabbled  o'er  the  pool, 
The  playful  children  just  let  loose  from  school. 
The  watch-dog's  voice  that  bayed  the  whispering  wind, 
And  the  loud  laugh  that  spoke  the  vacant  mind, — 
These  all  in  sweet  confusion  sought  the  shade. 
And  filled  each  pause  the  nightingale  had  made. 

— Ooldsmith. 

16    To  sit  on  rocks,  to  muse  o'er  flood  and  fell, 
To  slowly  trace  the  forest's  shady  scene. 
Where  things  that  own  not  man's  dominion  dwell, 
And  mortal  foot  hath  ne'er  or  rarely  been  ; 
To  climb  the  trackless  mountain  all  unseen. 
With  the  wild  flock  that  never  needs  a  fold  ; 
Alone  o'er  steeps  and  foaming  falls  to  lean  ; — 
This  is  not  solitude  ;  't  is  but  to  hold 
Converse  with  nature's  charms,  and  view  her  stores  unrolled. 

^Byron, 

17.    The  drawbridge  dropped  with  a  surly  clang. 
And  through  the  dark  arch  a  charger  sprang. 
Bearing  Sir  Launfal,  the  maiden  knight, 
In  his  gilded  mail,  that  flamed  so  bright 
It  seemed  the  dark  castle  had  gathered  all 
Those  shafts  the  fierce  sun  had  shot  over  its  wall 
In  his  siege  of  three  hundred  summers  long, 
And,  binding  them  all  in  one  blazing  sheaf, 
Had  cast  them  forth  ;  so,  young  and  strong 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  331 


And  lightsome  as  a  locust  leaf, 

Sir  Launfal  flashed  forth  in  his  maiden  mail 

To  seek  in  all  climes  for  the  Holy  Grail. — Lowell, 

18.   Be  it  a  weakness,  it  deserves  some  praise, — 
We  love  the  play-place  of  our  early  days  ; 
The  scene  is  touching,  and  the  heart  is  stone 
That  feels  not  at  the  sight,  and  feels  at  none. 
The  wall  on  which  we  tried  our  graving  skill, 
The  very  name  we  carved  subsisting  still  ; 
The  bench  on  which  we  sat  while  deep  employed, 
Tho'  mangled,  hacked,  and  hewed,  not  yet  destroyed  ; 
The  little  ones,  unbuttoned,  glowing  hot. 
Playing  our  games,  and  on  the  very  spot. 
As  happy  as  we  once,  to  kneel  and  draw 
The  chalky  ring  and  knuckle  down  at  taw, 
To  pitch  the  ball  into  the  grounded  hat, 
Or  drive  it  devious  with  a  dexterous  pat ; — 
The  pleasing  spectacle  at  once  excites 
Such  recollection  of  our  own  delights 
That,  viewing  it,  we  seem  almost  t'  obtain 
Our  innocent,  sweet,  simple  years  again. — Cowper. 

19.  Considering  our  present  advanced  state  of  culture,  and  how  the 
torch  of  science  has  now  been  brandished  and  borne  about,  with  more 
or  less  effect,  for  five  thousand  years  and  upwards  ;  how,  in  these 
times  especially,  not  only  the  torch  still  burns,  and  perhaps  more 
fiercely  than  ever,  but  innumerable  rush-lights  and  sulphur-matches, 
kindled  thereat,  are  also  glancing  in  every  direction,  so  that  not  the 
smallest  cranny  or  doghole  in  nature  or  art  can  remain  unillumi- 
nated,— it  might  strike  the  reflective  mind  with  some  surprise  that 
21 


322  Modifications  of  the  Parts  of  Speech, 


hitherto  little  or  nothing  of  a  fundamental  character,  whether  in  the 
way  of  philosophy  or  history,  has  been  written  on  the  subject  of 
Clothes. — Carlyle. 

20.  When  we  see  one  word  of  a  frail  man  on  the  throne  of  France 
tearing  a  hundred  thousand  sons  from  their  homes,  breaking  asunder 
the  sacred  ties  of  domestic  life,  sentencing  myriads  of  the  young  to 
make  murder  their  calling  and  rapacity  their  means  of  support,  and 
extorting  from  nations  their  treasures  to  extend  this  ruinous  sway,  we 
are  ready  to  ask  ourselves.  Is  not  this  a  dream  ?  and,  when  the  sad 
reality  comes  home  to  us,  we  blush  for  a  race  which  can  stoop  to  such 
an  abject  lot.  At  length,  indeed,  we  see  the  tyrant  humbled,  stripped 
of  power,  but  stripped  by  those  who,  in  the  main,  are  not  unwilling  to 
play  the  despot  on  a  narrower  scale,  and  to  break  down  the  spirit  of 
nations  under  the  same  iron  sway. — Channing. 

21.  There  are  days  which  occur  in  this  climate,  at  almost  any  season 
of  the  year,  wherein  the  world  reaches  its  perfection  ;  when  the  air, 
the  heavenly  bodies,  and  the  earth  make  a  harmony,  as  if  Nature 
would  indulge  her  offspring  ;  when,  in  these  bleak  upper  sides  of 
the  planet,  nothing  is  to  desire  that  we  have  heard  of  the  happiest 
latitudes,  and  we  bask  in  the  shining  hours  of  Florida  and  Cuba  ; 
when  everything  that  has  life  gives  sign  of  satisfaction,  and  the 
cattle  that  lie  on  the  ground  seem  to  have  great  and  tranquil 
thoughts. — Emerson. 

22.  Did  you  never,  in  walking  in  the  fields,  come  across  a  large  fli^t 
stone,  which  had  lain,  nobody  knows  how  long,  just  where  you  found 
it,  with  the  grass  forming  a  little  hedge,  as  it  were,  all  round  it,  close 
to  its  edges  ;  and  have  you  not,  in  obedience  to  a  kind  of  feeling  that 
told  you  it  had  been  lying  there  long  enough,  insinuated  your  stick  or 
your  foot  or  your  fingers  under  its  edge,  and  turned  it  over  as  a  house- 


Additional  Examples  for  Analysis.  323 


wife  turns  a  cake,  when  she  says  to  herself,  "  It's  done  brown  enough 
by  this  time  "  ?  But  no  sooner  is  the  stone  turned  and  the  wholesome 
light  of  day  let  upon  this  compressed  and  blinded  community  of  creep- 
ing things  than  all  of  them  which  enjoy  the  luxury  of  legs— and  some 
of  them  have  a  good  many — rush  round  wildly,  butting  each  other  and 
everything  in  their  way,  and  end  in  a  general  stampede  for  under- 
ground retreats  from  the  region  poisoned  by  sunshine.  Next  year  you 
will  find  the  grass  growing  tall  and  green  where  the  stone  lay  ;  the 
ground-bird  builds  her  nest  where  the  beetle  had  his  hole ;  the 
dandelion  and  the  buttercup  are  growing  there,  and  the  broad  fans 
of  insect-angels  open  and  shut  over  their  golden  disks,  as  the  rhythmic 
waves  of  blissful  consciousness  pulsate  through  their  glorified  being. — 
Holmes. 

23.  There  is  a  different  and  sterner  path ; — I  know  not  whether  there 
be  any  now  qualified  to  tread  it ;  I  am  not  sure  that  even  one  has 
ever  followed  it  implicitly,  in  view  of  the  certain  raeagerness  of  its  tem- 
poral rewards,  and  the  haste  wherewith  any  fame  acquired  in  a  sphere 
so  thoroughly  ephemeral  as  the  Editor's  must  be  shrouded  by  the  dark 
waters  of  oblivion.  This  path  demands  an  ear  ever  open  to  the  plaints 
of  the  wronged  and  the  suffering,  though  they  can  never  repay  advo- 
cacy, and  those  who  mainly  support  newspapers  will  be  annoyed  and 
often  exposed  by  it  ;  a  heart  as  sensitive  to  oppression  and  degradation 
in  the  next  street  as  if  they  were  practiced  in  Brazil  or  Japan  ;  a  pen 
as  ready  to  expose  and  reprove  the  crimes  whereby  wealth  is  amassed 
and  luxury  enjoyed  in  our  own  country  at  this  hour  as  if  they  had 
been  committed  only  by  Turks  or  pagans  in  Asia  some  centuries  ago. — 
Greeley. 

24.  To  sweeten  the  beverage,  a  lump  of  sugar  was  laid  beside  each 
cup,  and  the  company  alternately  nibbled  and  sipped  with  great  deco- 
rum, until  an  improvement  was  introduced  by  a  shrewd  and  econom' 


324  Modifications  of  tlie  Parts  of  Speech. 


ical  old  lady,  which  was  to  suspend  a  large  lump  directly  over  the 
tea-table,  by  a  string  from  the  ceiling,  so  that  it  could  be  swung  from 
mouth  to  mouth — an  ingenious  expedient,  which  is  still  kept  up  by 
some  families  in  Albany,  but  which  prevails  without  exception  in 
Communipaw,  Bergen,  Flatbush,  and  all  our  uncontaminated  Dutch 
villages. — Irving, 


COMPOSITION. 


LESSON     146. 

SUMMARY    OF    RULES    FOR    CAPITAL    LETTERS    AND 
PUNCTUATION. 

CAPITAL   LETTERS,    TERMINAL   MARKS,    AND  THE   COMMA. 

Capital  Letters. — The  first  word  of  (1)  a  sentence,  (2) 
a  line  of  poetry,  (3)  a  direct  quotation  making  complete 
sense  or  a  direct  question  introduced  into  a  sentence,  and 
(4)  phrases  or  clauses  separately  numbered  or  paragraphed 
should  begin  with  a  capital  letter.  Begin  with  a  capital 
letter  (5)  proper  names  (including  all  names  of  the  Deity), 
and  words  derived  from  them,  (6)  names  of  things  vividly 
personified,  and  (7)  most  abbreviations.  Write  in  capital 
letters  (8)  the  words  I  and  0,  and  (9)  numbers  in  the 
Roman  notation.* 

Period. — Place  a  period  after  (1)  a  declarative  or  an  im- 
perative sentence,  (2)  an  abbreviation,  (3)  a  number  written 
in  the  Roman  notation,  and  (4)  Arabic  figures  used  to 
enumerate. 

Interrogation  Point. — Every  direct  interrogative  sen- 

*  Small  letters  are  often  used  in  referring  to  sections,  chapters,  etc. 


326  Composition. 


tence  or  clause  should   be  followed   by   an   interrogation 
point. 

Exclamation  Point. — All  exclamatory  expressions  must 
be  followed  by  the  exclamation  point. 

Comma. — Set  off  by  the  comma  (1)  an  explanatory  modi- 
fier which  does  not  restrict  the  modified  term  or  combine 
closely  with  it  ;  (2)  a  participle  used  as  an  adjective  modi- 
fier, with  the  words  belonging  to  it,  unless  restrictive  ;  (3) 
the  adjective  clause  when  not  restrictive  ;  (4)  the  adverb 
clause,  unless  it  closely  follows  and  restricts  the  word  it 
modifies  ;  (5)  a  phrase  out  of  its  usual  order  or  not  closely 
connected  with  the  word  it  modifies  ;  (6)  a  word  or  phrase 
independent  or  nearly  so  ;  (7)  a  direct  quotation  introduced 
into  a  sentence,  unless  formally  introduced  ;  (8)  a  noun 
clause  used  as  an  attribute  complement  ;  and  (9)  a  term 
connected  to  another  by  or  and  having  the  same  meaning. 
Separate  by  the  comma  (10)  connected  words  and  phrases, 
unless  all  the  conjunctions  are  expressed  ;  (11)  co-ordinate 
clauses  when  short  and  closely  connected ;  and  (12)  the 
parts  of  a  compound  predicate,  and  other  phrases,  when 
long  or  differently  modified.  Use  the  comma  (13)  to  denote 
an  omission  of  words;  (14)  after  as,  namely,  etc.,  introdu- 
cing illustrations;  and  (15)  when  it  is  needed  to  prevent 
ambiguity. 

Direction. — Give  the  Rule  for  each  capital  letter  and  each  mark  of 
punctuation  in  these  sentences,  except  the  colon,  the  semicolon,  and  the 
quotation  marks : — 


Summary  of  Rules  for  Capital  Letters,  etc.  327 


1.  Francis  II.,  Charles  IX.,  and  Henry  III.,  three  sons  of  Catherine 
Ae  Medici  and  Henry  II.,  sat  upon  the  French  throne.  2.  The  pupil 
asked,  "When  shall  I  use  0,  and  when  shall  I  use  oh?''  3.  Purity 
of  style  forbids  us  to  use  :  1.  Foreign  words  ;  2.  Obsolete  words  ;  3. 
Low  words,  or  slang.  4.  It  is  easy.  Mistress  Dial,  for  you,  who  have 
always,  as  everybody  knows,  set  yourself  up  above  me,  to  accuse  one 
of  laziness.  5.  He  rushed  into  the  field,  and,  foremost  fighting,  fell. 
6.  The  Holy  Land  was,  indeed,  among  the  early  conquests  of  the 
Saracens,  Caliph  Omar  having,  in  637  a.  d.,  taken  Jerusalem.  7.  He 
who  teaches,  often  learns  himself.  8.  San  Salvador,  Oct.  12,  1492.  9. 
Some  letters  are  superfluous  ;  as,  c  and  q. 

10.  No  sleep  till  morn,  when  Youth  and  Pleasure  meet 
To  chase  the  glowing  hours  with  flying  feet  I 

Direction. —  Use  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctua- 
tion in  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reasons : — 

1.  and  lo  from  the  assembled  crowd 
there  rose  a  shout  prolonged  and  loud 
that  to  the  ocean  seemed  to  say 
take  her  o  bridegroom  old  and  gray 

2.  a  large  rough  mantle  of  sheepskin  fastened  around  the  loins  by  a 
girdle  or  belt  of  hide  was  the  only  covering  of  that  strange  solitary 
man  elijah  the  tishbite  3.  The  result  however  of  the  three  years' 
reign  or  tyranny  of  jas  ii  was  that  wm  of  orange  came  over  from  hol- 
land  and  without  shedding  a  drop  of  blood  became  a  d  1688  wm  iii  of 
england  4.  o  has  three  sounds  :  1.  that  in  7iot ;  2.  that  in  note;  3. 
that  in  move  5.  lowell  asks  and  what  is  so  rare  as  a  day  in  June  6. 
spring  is  a  fickle  mistress  but  summer  is  more  staid  7.  if  i  may  judge 
by  his  gorgeous  colors  and  the  exquisite  sweetness  and  variety  of  his 
music  autumn  is  i  should  say  the  poet  of  the  family  8.  new  york  apr 
30  1789    9.  some  letters  stand  each  for  many  sounds  ;  as  a  and  a 


328  Composition. 


LESSON     147. 

SUMMARY    OF    RULES-CONTINUED. 

SEMICOLON   AND    COLON. 

Semicolon. — Co-ordinate  clauses,  (1)  when  slightly  con- 
nected, or  (2)  when  themselves  divided  by  the  comma, 
must  be  separated  by  the  semicolon.     Use  the  semicolon 

(3)  between   serial   phrases   or  clauses  having  a  common 
dependence  on  something  which  precedes  or  follows  ;  and 

(4)  before  as,  to  tvit,  namely,  i.  e.,  and  that  is,  when  they 
introduce  examples  or  illustrations. 

Direction. — Justify  each  capital  letter  and  each  mark  of  punctua- 
tion (except  the  colon)  in  these  sentences: — 

1.  It  may  cost  treasure,  and  it  may  cost  blood  ;  but  it  will  stand, 
and  it  will  richlj^  compensate  for  both.  2.  Some  words  are  delightful 
to  the  ear  ;  as,  Ontario,  golden,  oriole.  3.  The  shouts  of  revelry  had 
died  away  ;  the  roar  of  the  lion  had  ceased  ;  the  last  loiterer  had 
retired  from  the  banquet ;  and  the  lights  in  the  palace  of  the  victor 
were  extinguished.  4.  Send  it  to  the  public  halls  ;  proclaim  it  there  ; 
let  them  hear  it  who  heard  the  first  roar  of  the  enemy's  cannon  ;  let 
them  see  it  who  saw  their  brothers  and  their  sons  fall  on  the  field  of 
Bunker  Hill :  and  the  very  walls  will  cry  out  in  its   support. 

Direction. —  Use  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctua- 
tion in  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reasons: — 

1.  all  parts  of  a  plant  reduce  to  three  namely  root  stem  and  leaf  2. 
when  the  world  is  dark  with  tempests  when  thunder  rolls  and  light- 
ning flies  thou  lookest  in  thy  beauty  from  the  clouds  and  laughest  at 


Summary  of  Rules— Continued.  329» 


the  storm  3.  the  oaks  of  the  mountains  fall  the  mountains  them- 
selves decay  with  years  the  ocean  shrinks  and  grows  again  the  mooii 
herself  is  lost  in  heaven  4.  kennedy  taking  from  her  a  handkerchief 
edged  with  gold  pinned  it  over  her  eyes  the  executioners  holding  her 
by  the  arms  led  her  to  the  block  and  the  queen  kneeling  down  said 
repeatedly  with  a  firm  voice  into  thy  hands  o  lord  i  commend  my 
spirit 

Colon. — Use  tlie  colon  (1)  between  the  parts  of  a  sen- 
tence when  these  parts  are  themselves  divided  by  the 
semicolon,  and  (2)  before  a  quotation  or  an  enumeration 
of  particulars  when  formally  introduced. 

Direction. — Justify  each  capital  letter  and  each  mark  of  punctua" 
lion  in  these  sentences : — 

1.  You  may  swell  every  expense,  and  strain  every  effort,  still  more 
extravagantly  ;  accumulate  every  assistance  you  can  beg  and  borrow  ; 
traffic  and  barter  with  every  little,  pitiful  German  prince  that  cells 
and  sends  his  subjects  to  the  shambles  of  a  foreign  country  :  your 
efforts  are  forever  vain  and  impotent.  2.  This  is  a  precept  of  Socra- 
tes :  "Know  thyself."     , 

Direction. —  Use  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctua- 
tion in  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reasons : — 

1.  the  advice  given  ran  thus  take  care  of  the  minutes  and  the  hours 
will  take  care  of  themselves  2.  we  may  abound  in  meetings  and  move- 
ments enthusiastic  gatherings  in  the  field  and  forest  may  kindle  all 
minds  with  a  common  sentiment  but  it  is  all  in  vain  if  men  do  not 
retire  from  the  tumult  to  the  silent  culture  of  every  right  disposi- 
tion 

Direction.  —  Write  sentences  illustrating  the  several  uses  of  the 
semicolon,  the  colon,  a/nd  the  comma. 


33f>  Composition. 


LESSON    148. 

SUMMARY   OF    RULES-CONTINUED. 

•FHE   DASH,    MARKS    OF    PARENTHESIS,     APOSTROPHE,    HYPHEN,    QUOTATION 
MARKS,    AND   BRACKETS. 

Dash. — Use  the  dash  where  there  is  an  omission  (1)  of 
letters  or  figures,  and  (2)  of  such  words  as  as,  namely,  or 
that  is,  introducing  illustrations  or  equivalent  expressions. 
Use  the  dash  (3)  where  the  sentence  breaks  off  abruptly, 
and  the  same  thought  is  resumed  after  a  slight  suspension, 
or  another  takes  its  place  ;  and  (4)  before  a  word  or  phrase 
repeated  at  intervals  for  emphasis.  The  dash  may  be  used 
(5)  instead  of  marks  of  parenthesis,  and  may  (6)  follow 
other  marks,  adding  to  their  force. 

Direction. — Justify  each  capital  letter  and  each  mark  of  punctua- 
tion in  these  sentences  : — 

1.  The  most  noted  kings  of  Israel  were  the  first  three — Saul,  David, 

and  Solomon.     2.  Wlien  Mrs.  B heard  of  her  son's  disgrace,  she 

fainted  away.  3.  And — "  This  to  me  ?"  he  said.  4.  Assyria,  Greece, 
Rome,  Carthage — what  are  they  ?  5.  I  do  not  rise  to  supplicate  you 
to  be  merciful  toward  the  nation  to  which  I  belong, — toward  a  nation 
which,  though  subject  to  England,  yet  is  distinct  from  it.  6.  We 
know  the  uses — and  sweet  they  are — of  adversity.  7.  His  place  of 
business  is  225 — 229  High  street. 

Direction. —  Use  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctual 
tion  in  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reasons: — 

1.  the  human  species  is  composed  of  two  distinct  races  those  who 
borrow  and  those  who  lend    2.  this  bill  this  infamous  bill  the  way  it 


Summary  of  Rules— Continued.  331 


has  been  received  by  the  house  the  manner  in  which  its  opponents 
have  been  treated  the  personalities  to  which  they  have  been  subjected 
all  these  things  dissipate  my  doubts    3.  the  account  of  a  's  shame 

fills  pp  1  19  4.  lord  marmion  turned  well  was  his  need  and  dashed 
the  rowels  in  his  steed 

Marks  of  Parenthesis. — Marks  of  parenthesis  may  be 
used  to  inclose  what  has  no  essential  connection  with  the 
rest  of  the  sentence. 

Apostrophe. — Use  the  apostrophe  (1)  to  mark  the  omis- 
sion of  letters,  (2)  in  the  pluralizing  of  letters,  figures,  and 
characters,  and  (3)  to  distinguish  the  possessive  from  other 
cases. 

Hyphen. — Use  the  hyphen  (-)  (1)  to  join  the  parts  of 
compound  words,  and  (2)  between  syllables  when  a  word 
is  divided. 

Quotation  Marks. — Use  quotation  marks  to  inclose  a 
copied  word  or  passage.  If  the  quotation  contains  a  quo- 
tation, the  latter  is  inclosed  within  single  marks.  (See 
Lesson  74.) 

Brackets. — Use  brackets  [  ]  to  inclose  what,  in  quoting 
another^s  words,  you  insert  by  way  of  explanation  or  cor- 
rection. 

Direction. — Justify  the  marks  of  punctuation  used  in  these  sen- 
tences : — 

1.  Luke  says,  Acts  xxi.  15,  *' We  took  up  our  carriages  [luggage], 
and  went  up  to  Jerusalem."  2.  The  last  sentence  of  the  composition 
was,  "  I  close  in  the  words  of  Patrick  Henry,  *  Give  me  liberty,  or  give 


.332  Composition. 


me  death,' "  3.  Red-hot  is  a  compound  adjective.  4.  Telegraph  is 
-divided  thus  :  tel-e-graph.  5.  The  profound  learning  of  Sir  William 
•Jones  (he  was  master  of  twenty-eight  languages)  was  the  wonder  of  his 
•contemporaries.  6.  By  means  of  the  apostrophe  you  know  that  love 
in  mother's  love  is  a  noun,  and  that  i's  isn't  a  verb. 

Direction. —  Use  capital  letters  and  the  proper  marks  of  punctuation 

in  these  sentences,  and  give  your  reasons  : — 

1.  next  to  a  conscience  void  of  offense  without  which  by  the  bye  life 
isnt  worth  the  living  is  the  enjoyment  of  tjie  social  feelings  2.  man 
the  life  boat  3.  dont  neglect  in  writing  to  dot  your  is  cross  your  ts 
.and  make  your  7s  unlike  your  9s  and  dont  in  speaking  omit  the  hs 
from  such  words  as  which  when  and  why  or  insert  rs  in  law  saw  and 
raw  4.  the  scriptures  tell  us  take  no  thought  anxiety  for  the  morrow 
5.  The  speaker  said  american  oratory  rose  to  its  high  water  mark  in 
that  great  speech  ending  liberty  and  union  now  and  forever  one  and 
inseparable 


LESSON     149. 

CAPITAL    LETTERS    AND    PUNCTUATION-REVIEW. 

Direction. — Give  the  reason  for  each  capital  letter  and  each  mark 
of  punctuation  in  these  sentences  : — 

1.  A  bigot's  mind  is  like  the  pupil  of  the  eye  ;  the  more  light  you 
pour  upon  it,  the  more  it  contracts.  2.  This  is  the  motto  of  the  Uni- 
versity of  Oxford  :  "  The  Lord  is  my  light."  3.  The  only  fault  ever 
found  with  him  is,  that  he  sometimes  fights  ahead  of  his  orders,  4. 
The  land  flowing  with  *'milk  and  honey  "  (see  Numbers  xiv.  8)  was 
a  long,  narrow  strip,  lying  along  the  eastern  edge,  or  coast,  of  the 
Mediterranean,  •  and  consisted  of  three  divisions  ;  namely,  1.  On  the 
north,  Galilee  ;  2.  On  the  south,  Judea  ;  3.  In  the  middle,  Samaria. 


Capital  Letters  and  Punctuation— Review.  333: 


5.  "What  a  lesson,"  Trench  well  says,   "the  word  'diligence'  con- 
tains ! " 

6.  An  honest  man,  my  neighbor, — there  he  stands — 
Was  struck — struck  like  a  dog,  by  one  who  wore 
The  badge  of  Ursini. 

7.  Thou,  too,  sail  on,  O  Ship  of  State  ; 
Sail  on,  0  Union,  strong  and  great. 

8.  O'Connell  asks,  "  The  clause  which  does  away  with  trial  by  jury 

— what,  in  the  name  of  11 n,  is  it,  if  it  is  not  the  establishment  of 

a  revolutionary  tribunal  ?  "  9.  There  are  only  three  departments  of 
the  mind — the  intellect,  the  feelings,  and  the  will.  10.  This — trial  I 
11.  American  nationality  has  made  the  desert  to  bud  and  blossom  as 
the  rose  ;  it  has  quickened  to  life  the  giant  brood  of  useful  arts  ;  it  has 
whitened  lake  and  ocean  with  the  sails  of  a  daring,  new,  and  lawful 
trade  ;  it  has  extended  to  exiles,  flying  as  clouds,  the  asylum  of  our 
better  liberty.  12.  As  I  saw  him  [Webster,  the  day  before  his  great, 
reply  to  Col.  Hayne  of  South  Carolina]  in  the  evening,  (if  I  may  borrow 
an  illustration  from  his  favorite  amusement)  he  was  as  unconcerned 
and  as  free  of  spirit  as  some  here  present  have  seen  him  while  floating 
in  his  fishing-boat  along  a  hazy  shore,  gently  rocking  on  the  tranquil 
tide,  dropping  his  line  here  and  there,  with  the  varying  fortune  of  the 
sport.  The  next  morning  he  was  like  some  mighty  admiral,  dark  and 
terrible,  casting  the  long  shadow  of  his  frowning  tiers  far  over  the 
sea,  that  seemed  to  sink  beneath  him  ;  his  broad  pendant  [pennant] 
streaming  at  the  main,  the  stars  and  the  stripes  at  the  fore,  the 
mizzen,  and  the  peak  ;  and  bearing  down  like  a  tempest  upon  his 
antagonist,  with  all  his  canvas  strained  to  the  wind,  and  all  his  thun- 
ders roaring  from  his  broadsides.  13.  The  "beatitudes"  are  found  in 
Matt.  V.  3—11. 

To  THE  Teacher.— If  further  work  in  punctuation  is  needed,  require  thepupila 
to  justify  the  punctuation  of  the  sentences  beginning  page  314. 


334  Composition. 


LESSON    15  0. 

QUALITIES  OF    STYLE. 

Style  is  the  manner  in  which  one  expresses  himself.  Styles  differ 
as  men  differ.  But  there  are  some  cardinal  qualities  that  all  good 
style  must  possess. 

I.  Perspicuity. — Perspicuity  is  opposed  to  obscurity  of  all 
kinds  ;  it  means  clearness  of  expression.  It  demands  that  the 
thought  in  the  sentence  shall  be  plainly  seen  through  the  words  of 
the  sentence.  Perspicuity  is  an  indispensable  quality  of  style  ;  if  the 
thought  is  not  understood,  or  it  is  misunderstood,  its  expression  might 
better  have  been  left  unattempted.  Perspicuity  depends  mainly  upon 
these  few  things  : — 

1.  One's  Clear  Understanding  of  What  One  Attempts  to 
Say. — You  cannot  express  to  others  more  than  you  thoroughly  know, 
or  make  your  thought  clearer  to  them  than  it  is  to  yourself. 

2.  The  Unity  of  the  Sentence. — Many  thoughts,  or  thoughts 
having  no  natural  and  close  connection  with  each  other,  should  not  be 
crowded  into  one  sentence. 

3.  The  Use  of  the  Right  Words. — Use  such  words  as  convey 
your  thought — each  word  expressing  exactly  your  idea,  no  more,  no 
less,  no  other.  Use  words  in  the  senses  recognized  by  the  best  author- 
ity. Do  not  omit  words  when  they  are  needed,  and  do  not  use  a 
superfluity  of  them.  Be  cautious  in  the  use  of  he,  she,  it,  and  they. 
Use  simple  words — words  which  those  who  are  addressed  can  readily 
understand.  Avoid  what  are  called  bookish,  inkhorn,  terms  ;  shun 
words  that  have  passed  out  of  use,  and  those  that  have  no  footing  in 
the  language — foreign  words,  words  newly  coined,  and  slang. 

4.  A  Happy  Arrangement. — The  relations  of  single  words  to 
each  other,  of  phrases  to  the  words  they  modify,  and  of  clauses  to 


Qualities  of  Style.  335 


one  another  should  be  obvious  at  a  glance.  The  sentence  should  not 
need  rearrangement  in  order  to  disclose  the  meaning.  Sentences 
should  stand  in  the  paragraph  so  that  the  beginning  of  each  shall 
tally  exactly  in  thought  with  the  sentence  that  precedes  ;  and  the 
ending  of  each,  with  the  sentence  that  follows.  Every  paragraph 
should  be  a  unit  in  thought,  distinct  from  other  paragraphs,  holding 
to  them  the  relation  that  its  own  sentences  hold  to  one  another,  the 
relation  that  the  several  parts  of  each  sentence  hold  to  one  another. 

II.  Energy. — By  energy  we  mean  force,  vigor,  of  expression.  In 
ordinary  discourse,  it  is  not  often  sought,  and  in  no  discourse  is  it 
constantly  sought.  We  use  energy  when  we  wish  to  convince  the 
intellect,  arouse  the  feelings,  and  capture  the  will — lead  one  to  do 
something.  When  energetic,  we  select  words  and  images  for  strength 
and  not  for  beauty  ;  choose  specific,  and  not  general,  terms  ;  prefer 
the  concrete  to  the  abstract  ;  use  few  words  and  crowd  these  with 
meaning  ;  place  subordinate  clauses  before  the  independent  ;  and  put 
the  strongest  word  in  the  clause,  the  strongest  clause  in  the  sentence, 
the  strongest  sentence  in  the  paragraph,  and  the  strongest  paragraph 
in  the  discourse,  last.  Energetic  thought  seeks  variety  of  expression, 
is  usually  charged  with  intense  feeling,  and  requires  impassioned 
delivery. 

III.  Imagery — Figures  of  Speech.  —  Things  stand  in  many 
relations  to  each  other.  Some  things  are  (1)  like  each  other  in 
some  particular  ;  other  things  are  (2)  unlike  each  other  in  some 
particular  ;  and  still  other  things  stand  to  each  other  (3)  in  some 
other  noteworthy  relation  than  that  of  likeness  or  unlikeness. 
Things  long  seen  and  associated  by  us  in  any  of  these  relations  come 
at  last  readily  to  suggest  each  other.  Figures  of  Speech  are  those 
expressions  in  which,  departing  from  our  ordinary  manner  in  speak- 
ing of  things,  we  assert  or  assume  any  of  these  notable  relations. 
The  first  and  great  service  of  imagery  is  to  the  thought— it  makes  the 


Composition. 


thought  clearer  and  stronger.  Imagery  adds  beauty  to  style— a  dia- 
mond brooch  may  adorn  as  well  as  do  duty  to  the  dress. 

A  Simile,  or  Comparison,  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  we  point 
out  or  assert  a  likeness  between  things  otherwise  unlike  ;  as,  The 
gloom  of  despondency  hung  like  a  cloud  over  the  land. 

A  Metaphor  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which,  assuming .  the  likeness 
between  two  things,  we  bring  over  and  apply  to  one  of  them  the  term 
that  denotes  the  other  ;  as,  A  stately  squadron  of  snozvy  geese  were 
riding  in  an  adjoining  pond. 

A  Personification  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  things  are  raised 
to  a  plane  of  being  above  their  own — to  or  toward  that  of  persons.  It 
raises  (1)  mere  thing^s  to  the  plane  of  animals  ;  as,  The  sea  licks 
your  feet,  its  huge  flanks  purr  pleasantly  for  you.  It  raises  (2)  mere 
animals  to  the  plane  of  persons;  as,  So  talked  the  spirited,  sly 
Snake.  It  raises  (3)  mere  thing^s  to  the  plane  of  persons;  as. 
Earth  fills  her  lap  with  pleasures  of  her  own. 

An  Antithesis  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  things  mutually 
opposed  in  some  particular  are  set  over  against  each  other  ;  as.  The 
mountains  give  their  lost  children  berries  and  water ;  the  sea  mocks 
their  thirst  and  lets  them  die. 

A  Metonymy  is  a  figure  of  speech  in  which  the  name  of  one  thing 
connected  to  another  by  a  relation  other  than  likeness  or  unlikeness  is 
brought  over  and  applied  to  that  other.  The  most  important  of  these 
relations  are  (1)  that  of  the  sign  to  the  thing  signified ;  (2)  that  of 
cause  to  eflfect ;  (3)  that  of  instrument  to  the  user  of  it  ;  (4)  that 
of  container  to  the  thing  contained ;  (5)  that  of  material  to  the 
thing  made  out  of  it;  (6)  that  of  contiguity;  (7)  that  of  the 
abstract  to  the  concrete ;  and  (8)  that  of  part  to  the  whole  or  of 
whole  to  the  part. 

This  last  relation  has  been  thought  so  important  that  the  metonymy 
based  upon  it  has  received  a  distinct  name — Synecdoche. 


Perspicuity— Criticism.  337 


IV.  Variety. — Variety  is  a  quality  of  style  opposed  to  monotonous 
uniformity.  Nothing  in  discourse  pleases  us  more  than  light  and 
shade.  In  discourse  properly  varied,  the  same  word  does  not  appear 
with  offensive  frequency  ;  long  words  alternate  with  short ;  the  usual 
order  now  and  then  yields  to  the  transposed  ;  the  verb  in  the  assertive 
form  frequently  gives  way  to  the  participle  and  the  infinitive,  which 
assume  ;  figures  of  speech  sparkle  here  and  there  in  a  setting  of  plain 
language  ;  the  full  method  of  statement  is  followed  by  the  contracted ; 
impassioned  language  is  succeeded  by  the  unemotional  ;  long  sen- 
tences stand  side  by  side  with  short,  and  loose  sentences  with  periods; 
declarative  sentences  are  relieved  by  interrogative  and  exclamatory,  and 
simple  sentences  by  compound  and  complex  ;  clauses  have  no  rigidly 
fixed  position  ;  and  sentences  heavy  with  meaning  and  moving  slowly 
are  elbow  to  elbow  with  the  light  and  tripping.  In  a  word,  no  one 
form  or  method  or  matter  is  continued  so  long  as  to  weary,  and  the 
reader  is  kept  fresh  and  interested  throughout.  Variety  is  restful  to 
the  reader  or  hearer  and  therefore  adds  greatly  to  the  clearness  and 
to  the  force  of  what  is  addressed  to  him. 

To  THE  Tbacher.— Question  the  pupils  upon  every  point  taken  up  in  this  Lesson, 
and  require  them  to  give  illustrations  where  it  is  possible  for  them  to  do  so. 


LESSON     151. 

PERSPICUITY-CRITICISM. 

General  Direction. — In  all  your  work  in  Composition  attend  care-' 
fully  to  the  pu7ictuation. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  faults,  and  recast  these  sentences,  making 
them  clear  : — 

*  1.  He  was  locked  in  and  so  he  sat  still  till  the  guard  came  and  let 

*  These  four  sentences  and  others  in  these  Lessons,  given  just  as  we  found  them, 
liave  been  culled  from  school  compositions. 

22 


338  Composition. 


him  out,  as  soon  as  he  stepped  out  on  the  ground,  he  saw  the  dead  and 
dying  laying  about  everywhere.  2.  They  used  to  ring  a  large  bell  at 
six  o'clock  in  the  morning  for  us  to  get  up,  then  we  had  half  an  hour 
to  dress  in,  after  which  we  would  go  to  Chapel  exercises,  then  break- 
fast, school  would  commence  at  nine  o'clock  and  closed  at  four  in  the 
afternoon  allowing  an  hour  for  dinner  from  one  until  two  then  we 
would  resume  our  studies  until  four  in  the  afternoon.  3.  Jewelry  was 
worn  in  the  time  of  King  Pharaoh  which  is  many  thousand  years 
before  Christ  in  the  time  when  the  Israelites  left  they  borrowed  all  the 
jewels  of  the  Egyptians  which  were  made  of  gold  and  silver.  4.  When 
it  is  made  of  gold  they  can  not  of  pure  gold  but  has  to  be  mixed  with 
some  other  metal  which  is  generally  copper  which  turns  it  a  reddish 
hue  in  some  countries  they  use  silver  which  gives  it  a  whitish  hue  but 
in  the  United  States  and  England  they  use  both  silver  and  copper  but 
the  English  coins  are  the  finest. 

Direction. — Point  out  the  faults,  and  recast  these  sentences,  making 
them  clear : — 

(If  any  one  of  the  sentences  has  several  meanings,  give  these.) 

1.  James's  son,  Charles  I.,  before  the  breath  was  out  of  his  body 
was  proclaimed  king  in  his  stead.  2.  He  told  the  coachman  that  he 
would  be  the  death  of  him,  if  he  did  not  take  care  what  he  was  about, 
and  mind  what  he  said.  3.  Richelieu  said  to  the  king  that  Mazarin 
would  carry  out  his  policy.  4.  He  was  overjoyed  to  see  him,  and  he 
sent  for  one  of  his  workmen,  and  told  him  to  consider  himself  at  his 
service.  5.  Blake  answered  the  Spanish  priest  that  if  he  had  sent  in 
a  complaint,  he  would  have  punished  the  sailors  severely  ;  but  he  took 
it  ill  that  he  set  the  Spaniards  on  to  punish  them. 

Direction. — So  place  these  subordinate  clauses  that  they  will  remove 
the  obscurity,  and  then  see  in  how  many  ways  each  sentence  can  be 
arranged : — 

1.  The  moon  cast  a  pale  light  on  the  graves  that  were  scattered 


Perspicuity— Criticism.  339 


around,  as  it  peered  above  the  horizon.  2.  A  large  number  of  seats 
were  occupied  by  pupils  that  had  no  backs.  3.  Crusoe  was  surprised  at 
seeing  five  canoes  on  the  shore  in  which  there  were  savages.  4.  This 
tendency  will  be  headed  off  by  approximations  which  will  be  made 
from  time  to  time  of  the  written  word  to  the  spoken.  5.  People  had 
to  travel  on  horseback  and  in  wagons,  which  was  a  very  slow  way,  if 
they  traveled  at  all.  6.  How  can  brethren  partake  of  their  Father's 
blessing  that  curse  each  other  ?  7.  Two  men  will  be  tried  for  crimes 
in  this  town  which  are  punishable  with  death,  if  a  full  court  should 
attend. 

Direction. — Each  of  these  sentences  may  have  two  meanings  ; 
supply  the  two  ellipses  in  each  sentence,  and  remove  the  ambiguity  : — 

1.  Let  us  trust  no  strength  less  than  thine.  2.  Study  had  more 
attraction  for  him  than  his  friend.  3.  He  did  not  like  the  new  teacher 
so  well  as  his  playmates.  4.  He  aimed  at  nothing  less  than  the  crown. 
6.  Lovest  thou  me  more  than  these  ? 


LESSON     15  2. 

PERSPICUITY-CRITICISM. 

Direction. — So  place  these  italicized  phrases  that  th&^  vrill  remove 
the  obscurity,  and  then  see  in  how  many  ways  each  sentence  can  be 
arranged : — 

1.  These  designs  any  man  who  is  a  Briton  in  any  situation  ought 
to  disavow.  2.  The  chief  priests,  mocking,  said  among  themselves 
with  the  scribes,  **He  saved,"  etc.  3.  Hay  is  given  to  horses  as 
well  as  corn  to  distend  the  stomach.  4.  Boston  has  forty  first  class 
grammar-schools,  exclusive  of  Dorchester.  5.  He  rode  to  town,  and 
drove  twelve  cows  on  horseback.  6.  He  could  not  face  an  enraged 
father  in  spite  of  his  effrontery.     7.  Two  owls  sat  upon  a  tree  which 


340  Composition. 


grew  near  an  old  wall  out  of  a  heap  of  rubbish.  8.  I  spent  most  on  the 
river  and  in  the  river  of  the  time  I  stayed  there.  9.  He  wanted  to  go 
to  sea,  although  it  was  contrary  to  the  wishes  of  his  parents,  at  the 
age  of  eighteen.  10.  I  have  a  wife  and  six  children,  and  I  have  never 
seen  one  of  them. 

Direction. — So  place  the  italicized  words  and  phrases  in  each  sen- 
tence that  they  will  help  to  convey  what  you  think  is  the  author''s 
thought,  and  then  see  in  how  many  ways  each  sentence  ca7i  be 
arranged : — 

1.  In  Paris,  every  lady  in  full  dress  rides.  •  2.  I  saw  my  friend  when 
I  was  in  Boston  walking  down  Tremont  street.  3.  The  Prince  of  Wales 
was  forbidden  to  become  king  or  any  other  man.  4.  What  is  his 
coming  or  going  to  you  ?  5.  We  do  those  things  frequently  which 
we  repent  of  afterwards.  6.  I  rushed  out  leaving  the  wretch  with 
his  tale  half  told,  horror-stricken  at  his  crime.  7.  Exclamation  points 
are  scattered  up  and  down  the  page  by  compositors  without  any  mercy. 
8.  I  want  to  make  a  present  to  one  who  is  fond  of  chickens  for  a 
Christmas  gift. 

Direction. — Make  these  sentences  clear  by  using  simpler  words  and 
phrases : — 

1.  A  devastating  conflagration  raged.  2.  He  conducted  her  to  the 
altar  of  Hymen.  3.  A  donkey  has  an  abnormal  elongation  of  auricu- 
lar appendages.  4.  Are  you  excavating  a  subterranean  canal  ?  5.  He 
had  no  capillary  substance  on  the  summit  of  his  head.  6.  He  made  a 
sad  faux  pas.  7.  A  network  is  anything  reticulated  or  decussated, 
with  interstices  at  equal  distances  between  the  intersection^.  8.  Dili- 
gence is  the  sine  qua  non  of  success.  9.  She  has  donned  the  habili- 
ments of  woe.  10.  The  deceased  was  to-day  deposited  in  his  last  resting- 
place.  11.  The  inmaies  proceeded  to  the  sanctuary.  12.  I  have 
partaken  of  my  morning  repast.  13.  He  took  the  initiative  in  inaugu- 
rating the  ceremony. 


Energy— Criticism.  341 


LESSON    153. 

ENERGY-CRITICISM. 


Direction. — Expand  these  brief  expressions  into  sentences  full  of 
long  words,  and  note  the  loss  of  energy : — 

1.  To  your  tents,  0  Israel  I    2.  Up,  boys,  and  at  them  !    3.  Indeed  I 

4.  Bah  1  5.  Don't  give  up  the  ship  !  6.  Murder  will  out.  7.  Oh  ! 
8.  Silence  there  !  9.  Hurrah  I  10.  Death  or  free  speech  !  11.  Ras- 
cal !  12.  No  matter.  13.  Least  said,  soonest  mended.  14.  Death  to 
the  tyrant !  15.  I'll  none  of  it.  16.  Help,  ho  !  17.  Shame  on  you  1 
18.  Fii*st  come,  first  served. 

Direction. — Condense  each  of  these  italicized  expressions  into  one 
or  two  words,  and  note  the  gain  : — 

1.  He  shuffled  off  this  mortal  coil  yesterday.  2.  The  author  sur- 
passed all  those  who  were  living  at  the  same  time  with  him.  3.  To  say 
that  revelation  is  a  thing  which  there  is  no  need  of  is  to  talk  wildly.  4. 
He  departed  this  life.  5.  Some  say  that  ever  'gainst  that  season  comes 
wherein  our  Saviour's  birth  is  celebrated  this  bird  of  dawning  singeth 
all  night  long. 

Direction. — Change  these  specific  words  to  general  terms,  and  note 
the  loss  in  energy : — 

1.  Don't  fire  till  you  see  the  whites  of  their  eyes.  2.  Break  down  the 
dikes,  give  Holland  back  to  ocean.  3.  Three  hundred  men  held  the 
hosts  of  Xerxes  at  bay.     4.  I  sat  at  her  cradle,  I  followed  her  hearse. 

5.  Their  daggers  have  stabbed  Caesar.  6.  When  I'm  mad,  I  weigh  a 
ton.  7.  Burn  Moscow,  starve  back  the  invaders.  8.  There's  no  use  in 
crying  over  spilt  milk.  9.  In  proportion  as  men  delight  in  battles  and 
bull-fights  will  they  punish  by  hanging,  burning,  and  the  rack. 

Direction. — Change  these  general  terms  to  specific  worda^  and  nota 
the  gain  in  energy : — 


842  Composition. 


1.  Anne  Boleyn  was  executed.  2.  It  were  better  for  him  that  a  heavy 
weight  were  fastened  to  him  and  that  he  were  submerged  in  the  waste 
of  waters.  3.  The  capital  of  the  chosen  people  was  destroyed  by  a 
Roman  general.  4.  Consider  the  flowers  how  they  increase  in  size.  5. 
Caesar  was  slain  by  the  conspirators.  6.  The  cities  of  the  plain  were 
annihilated. 

Direction. — Arrange  these  words,  phrases,  and  clauses  in  the  order 
of  their  strength,  placing  the  strongest  last,  and  note  the  gain  in 
energy  : — 

1,  The  nations  of  the  earth  repelled,  surrounded,  pursued,  and  re- 
sisted him.  2.  He  was  no  longer  consul  nor  citizen  nor  general  nor 
even  an  emperor,  but  a  prisoner  and  an  exile.  3.  I  shall  die  an  Amer- 
ican ;  I  live  an  American  ;  I  was  born  an  American.  4.  All  that  I 
am,  all  that  I  hope  to  be,  and  all  that  I  have  in  this  life,  I  am  now 
ready  here  to  stake  upon  it.  5.  I  shall  defend  it  without  this  House, 
in  all  places,  and  within  this  House  ;  at  all  times,  in  time  of  peace  and 
in  time  of  war.  6.  We  must  fight  if  we  wish  to  be  free,  if  we  mean  to 
preserve  inviolate  our  rights,  if  we  do  not  mean  to  abandon  the 
struggle. 

LESSON     154. 

FIGURES    OF    SPEECH-CRITICISM. 

Direction. — Name  the  figures  of  speech,  and  then  recast  a  few  sen- 
tences, using  plain  language,  and  note  the  loss  of  beauty  and  force  : — 

1.  Lend  me  your  ears.  2.  Please  address  the  chair.  3.  The  robin 
knows  when  your  grapes  have  cooked  long  enough  in  the  sun.  4.  A 
day  will  come  when  bullets  and  bombs  shall  be  replaced  by  ballots.  5. 
Genius  creates  ;  taste  appreciates  what  is  created.  6.  Caesar  were  no 
lion  were  not  Romans  hinds.  7.  The  soul  of  Jonathan  was  knit  to 
that  of  David.     8.  Traffic  has  lain  down  to  rest.     9.  Borrowing  dulls 


Figures  of  Speech— Criticism.  343 


the  edge  of  husbandry.  10.  He  will  bring  down  mj  gray  hairs  y^ith. 
sorrow  to.  the  grave.  11.  Have  you  read  Froude  ot  Freeman?  13. 
The  pen  is  mightier  than  the  sword.  13.  If  I  can  catch  him  once  upon 
the  hip,  I  will  feed  fat  the  ancient  grudge  I  bear  him.  14.  The  des- 
tinies of  mankind  were  trembling  in  the  balance,  while  death  fell  in 
showers.  15.  The  threaded  steel  ^\qs  swiftly.  16.  O  Cassius,  you  are 
yoked  tvith  a  lamb  that  carries  anger  as  the  flint  bears  fire.  17.  1 
called  the  Heio  World  into  existence  to  redress  the  balance  of  the  Old. 
18.  Nations  shall  beat  their  swords  into  plowshares,  and  their  spears 
into  prtming-hooks.  19.  The  Morn  in  russet  mantle  clad  walks  o'er  the 
dew  of  yon  high  eastern  hill.  20.  Homer,  like  the  Nile,  pours  out  his 
riches  with  a  sudden  overflow ;  Virgil,  like  a  river  in  its  banks,  with  a 
constant  stream.  21.  The  air  bites  shrewdly.  22.  He  doth  bestride 
the  narrow  world  like  a  Colossus.  23.  My  heart  is  in  the  coffin  there 
with  Cassar.  24.  All  hands  to  the  pumps  !  25.  The  gray-eyed  Morn 
smiles  on  the  frowning  Night.  26.  The  good  is  often  buried  with 
men's  bones.  27.  Beware  of  the  bottle.  28.  All  nations  respect  our 
fla^.  29.  The  marble  speaks.  30.  I  have  no  spiir  to  prick  the  sides 
of  my  intent.  31.  I  am  as  constant  as  the  northern  star.  32.  Then 
burst  his  mighty  heart.  33.  The  ice  is  covered  with  health  and  beauty 
on  skates.  34.  Lentulus  returned  with  victorious  eagles.  35.  Death 
hath  sucked  the  honey  of  thy  breath.  36.  Our  chains  are  forged.  37. 
I  have  bought  golden  opinions.  38.  The  hearth  blazed  high.  39.  His 
words  fell  softer  than  snows  on  the  brine.  40.  Nighfs  candles  are 
burnt  out,  &ndL  jocund  Day  stands  tiptoe  on  the  misty  mountain  top. 

Direction. — In  the  first  four  sentences,  use  similes  ;  in  the 
second  four,  metaphor  s  ;  in  the  third  four,  personifications; 
in  the  last  eight,  metonymies  : — 

1.  'B.Q  flew  with  the  swiftness  of  an  arrow.  2.  In  battle  some  men 
are  brave,  others  are  cowardly.  3.  His  head  is  as  full  of  plans  as  it 
can  hold.     4.  I  heard  a  loud  noise.      5.  Boston  is  the  pla^e  where 


344  Composition. 


American  liberty  began.  6.  Our  dispositions  should  grow  mild  as  we 
groio  old.  7.  The  stars  can  no  longer  be  seen.  8.  In  battle  some  men 
are  brave,  others  are  cowardly.  9.  The  cock  tears  up  the  ground  for 
his  family  of  hens  and  chickens.  10.  The  waves  were  still.  11.  The 
oak  stretches  out  its  strong  branches.  13.  The  flowers  are  the  sweet 
and  pretty  growths  of  the  earth  and  sun.  13.  English  vessels  plow 
the  seas  of  the  two  hemispheres.  14.  Have  you  read  Lamb's  Essays  f 
15.  The  water  is  boiling.  16.  We  have  prostrated  ourselves  before  the 
king.  17.  Wretched  people  shiver  in  their  lair  of  straw.  18.  The 
soldier  is  giving  way  to  the  husbandman.  19.  Swords  flashed,  and 
bullets  fell.     20.  His  banner  led  the  spearmen  no  more. 

Remark. — If  what  is  begun  as  a  metaphor  is  not  completed  as 
begun,  but  is  completed  by  a  part  of  another  metaphor  or  by  plain 
language,  we  have  what  is  called  a  mixed  metaphor.  It  requires  great 
care  to  avoid  this  very  common  error. 

Direction. — Correct  these  errors  : — 

1.  The  devouring  fire  uprooted  the  stubble.  2.  The  brittle  thread  of 
life  may  be  cut  asunder.  3.  All  the  ripe  fruit  of  three-score  years  was 
blighted  in  a  day.  4.  Unravel  the  obscurities  of  this  knotty  question. 
5.  We  must  apply  the  axe  to  the  fountain  of  this  evil.  6.  The  man 
stalks  into  court  like  a  motionless  statue,  with  the  cloak  of  hypocrisy  in 
his  mouth.  7.  The  thin  mantle  of  snow  dissolved.  8.  I  smell  a  rat,  I 
see  him  brewing  in  the  air,  but  I  shall  yet  nip  him  in  the  bud. 


LESSON     15  5. 

VARIETY    IN    EXPRESSION. 

Remark. — You  learned  in  Lessons  52,  53,  54  that  the  usual  order 
may  give  way  to  the  transposed  ;  in  55,  56,  that  one  kind  of  simple 
sentence  may  be  changed  to  another  ;  in  57,  that  simple  sentences  may 


Variety  In  Expression.  345 


be  contracted  ;  in  61,  that  adjectives  may  be  expanded  into  clauses  ; 
in  67,  that  an  adverb  clause  may  stand  before,  between  the  parts  of, 
and  after,  the  independent  clause  ;  in  68,  that  an  adverb  clause  may 
be  contracted  to  a  participle,  a  participle  phrase,  an  absolute  phrase, 
a  prepositional  phrase,  that  it  may  be  contracted  by  the  omission  of 
words,  and  may  be  changed  to  an  adjective  clause  or  phrase  ;  in  73, 
that  a  noun  clause  as  subject  may  stand  last,  and  as  object  comple- 
ment may  stand  first,  that  it  may  be  made  prominent,  and  may  be 
contracted ;  in  74,  that  direct  quotations  and  questions  may  be 
changed  to  indirect,  and  indirect  to  direct  ;  in  77,  that  compound  sen- 
tences may  be  formed  out  of  simple  sentences,  may  be  contracted  to 
simple  sentences,  and  may  be  changed  to  complex  sentences  ;  in  79, 
that  participles,  absolute  phrases,  and  infinitives  may  be  expanded 
into  different  kinds  of  clauses  ;  and,  in  130,  that  a  verb  may  change 
its  voice. 

Direction. — Illustrate  all  these  changes. 

Direction. — Recast  these  sentences,  avoiding  offensive  repetitions 
of  the  same  word  or  the  same  sounds : — 

1.  We  have  to  have  money  to  have  a  horse.  2.  We  sailed  across  a 
bay  and  sailed  up  a  creek  and  sailed  back  and  sailed  in  all  about  four- 
teen miles.  3.  It  is  then  put  into  stacks,  or  it  is  put  into  barns  either 
to  use  it  to  feed  it  to  the  stock  or  to  sell  it.  4.  This  day  we  undertake 
to  render  an  account  to  the  widows  and  orphans  whom  our  decision 
will  make  ;  to  the  wretches  that  will  be  roasted  at  the  stake.  5.  The 
news  of  the  battle  of  Bunker  Hill,  fought  on  the  17th  of  June  in  the 
year  of  our  Lord  1775,  roused  the  patriotism  of  the  people  to  a  high 
pitch  of  enthusiasm. 

Direction. —  Using  other  words  wholly  or  in  part,  see  in  how  many 
ways  you  can  express  the  thoughts  contained  in  these  sentences : — 
1.  In  the  profusion  and  recklessness  of  her  lies,  Elizabeth  had  no 


846  Composition. 


peer  in  England.  2.  Henry  IV.  said  that  James  I.  was  the  wisest 
fool  in  Christendom.  3.  Cowper's  letters  are  charming  because  they 
are  simple  and  natural.  4.  George  IV.,  though  he  was  pronounced 
the  first  gentleman  in  Europe,  was,  nevertheless,  a  snob. 


LESSON    156. 

THE    PARAGRAPH. 

The  Paragraph. — The  clauses  of  complex  sentences  are  so  closely 
united  in  meaning  that  frequently  they  are  not  to  be  separated  from 
each  other  even  by  the  comma.  The  clauses  of  compound  sentences 
are  less  closely  united — a  comma,  a  semicolon,  or  a  colon  is  needed  to 
divide  them. 

Between  sentences  there  exists  a  wider  separation  in  meaning, 
marked  by  a  period  or  other  terminal  point.  But  even  sentences  may 
be  connected,  the  bond  which  unites  them  being  their  common  rela- 
tion to  the  thought  which  jointly  they  develop.  Sentences  thus 
related  are  grouped  together  and  form,  as  you  have  already  learned, 
what  we  call  a  Paragraph,  marked  by  beginning  the  first  word  a 
little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal  line. 

Direction. — Notice  the  facts  which  this  paragraph  contains,  and 
the  relation  to  ecich  other  of  the  clauses  and  the  sentences  expressing 
these  facts : — 

After  a  breeze  of  some  sixty  hours  from  the  north  and  northwest, 
the  wind  died  away  about  four  o'clock  yesterday  afternoon.  The 
calm  continued  till  about  nine  in  the  evening.  The  mercury  in  the 
barometer  fell,  in  the  meantime,  at  an  extraordinary  rate  ;  and  the 
captain  predicted  that  we  should  encounter  a  gale  from  the  south- 
east. The  gale  came  om  about  eleven  o'clock  ;  not  violent  at  first, 
but  increasing  every  moment. 


The  Paragraph.  347 


1.  A  breeze  from  the  north  and  northwest.  2.  The  wind  died  away. 
3.  A  calm.  4.  Barometer  fell.  5.  The  captain  predicted  a  gale.  6. 
It  came  on.     7.  It  increased  in  violence. 

Direction. — Give  and  number  the  facts  contained  in  the  paragraph 
below : — 

I  awoke  with  a  confused  recollection  of  a  good  deal  of  rolling  and 
thumping  in  the  night,  occasioned  by  the  dashing  of  the  waves  against 
the  ship.  Hurrying  on  my  clothes,  I  found  such  of  the  passengers  as 
could  stand,  at  the  doors  of  the  hurricane-house,  holding  on,  and  look- 
ing out  in  the  utmost  consternation.  It  was  still  quite  dark.  Four  of 
the  sails  were  already  in  ribbons  :  the  winds  whistling  through  the 
cordage  ;  the  rain  dashing  furiously  and  in  torrents  ;  the  noise  and 
spray  scarcely  less  than  I  found  them  under  the  great  sheet  at  Niagara. 

Direction. —  Weave  the  facts  below  into  a  paragraph,  supplying  all 
you  need  to  make  the  narrative  smooth : — 

Rip's  beard  was  grizzled.  Fowling-piece  rusty.  Dress  uncouth. 
Women  and  children  at  his  heels.  Attracted  attention.  Was  eyed 
from  head  to  foot.  Was  asked  on  which  side  he  voted.  Whether  he 
was  Federal  or  Democrat.  Rip  was  dazed  by  the  question.  Stared 
in  stupidity. 

Direction.— Weai'e  the  facts  below  into  two  paragraphs,  supplying 
what  you  need,  and  tell  what  each  paragraph  is  about : — 

In  place  of  the  old  tree  there  was  a  pole.  This  was  tall  and  naked. 
A  flag  was  fluttering  from  it.  The  flag  had  on  it  the  stars  and  stripes. 
This  was  strange  to  Rip.  But  Rip  saw  something  he  remembered. 
The  tavern  sign.  He  recognized  on  it  the  face  of  King  George.  Still 
the  picture  was  changed.  The  red  coat  gone.  One  of  blue  and  buff 
in  its  place.  A  sword,  and  not  a  scepter,  in  the  hand.  Wore  a  cocked 
hat.     Underneath  was  painted — ''General  Washington." 


848  Composition. 


LESSON     15  7. 

THE    PARAGRAPH. 


Direction. —  Weave  the  facts  below  into  three  paragraphs,  and  write 
en  the  margin  what  each  is  about : — 

The  Nile  rises  in  great  lakes.  Runs  north.  Sources  two  thousand 
miles  from  Alexandria.  Receives  two  branches  only.  Runs  through 
an  alluvial  valley.  Course  through  the  valley  is  1,500  miles.  Flows 
into  the  Mediterranean.  Two  principal  channels.  Minor  outlets. 
Nile  overflows  its  banks.  Overflow  caused  by  rains  at  the  sources. 
The  melting  of  the  mountain  snows.  Begins  at  the  end  of  June. 
Rises  four  inches  daily.  Rises  till  the  close  of  September.  Subsides. 
Whole  valley  an  inland  sea.  Only  villages  above  the  surface.  The 
valley  very  fertile.  The  deposit.  The  fertile  strip  is  from  five  to  one 
hundred  and  fifty  miles  wide.  Renowned  for  fruitfulness.  Egypt 
long  the  granary  of  the  world.  Three  crops  from  December  to  June. 
Productions — grain,  cotton,  and  indigo. 

Direction. —  Weave  these  facts  into  four  paragraphs,  writing  on 
the  margin  of  each  the  main  thought : — 

The  robin  is  thought  by  some  to  be  migratory.  But  he  stays  with 
us  all  winter.  Cheerful.  Noisy.  Poor  soloist.  A  spice  of  vulgarity 
in  him.  Dash  of  prose  in  his  song.  Appetite  extraordinary.  Eats 
his  own  weight  in  a  short  time.  Taste  for  fruit.  Eats  with  a  relish- 
ing gulp,  like  Dr.  Johnson's.  Fond  of  cherries.  Earliest  mess  of 
peas.  Mulberries.  Lion's  share  of  the  raspberries.  Angleworms  his 
delight,  A  few  years  ago  I  had  a  grapevine.  A  foreigner.  Shy  of 
bearing.  This  summer  bore  a  score  of  bunches.  They  secreted  sugar 
from  the  sunbeams.  One  morning,  went  to  pick  them.  The  robins 
beforehand  with  me.  Bustled  out  from  the  leaves.  Made  shrill, 
unhandsome  remarks  about  me.      Had  sacked  the  vine.     Remnant 


Paragraphs  and  the  Theme.  349 


of  a  single  bunch.  How  it  looked  at  the  bottom  of  ray  basket  !  A 
humming-bird's  egg  in  an  eagle's  nest.  Laughed.  Robins  joined  in 
the  merriment. 


LESSON    158. 

PARAGRAPHS    AND    THE  THEME. 

Direction. —  Weave  these  facts  into  four  paragraphs : — 
Note  that  the  several  paragraphs  form  a  composition,  or  Theme, 
the  general  subject  of  which  is 

WouTER  Van  Twiller  (according  to  Diedrich  Knickerbocker). 

I.  Who  he  was. — Van  Twiller  was  a  Dutchman.  Born  at  Rotter- 
dam. Descended  from  burgomasters.  In  1629  appointed  governor  of 
Nieuw  Nederlandts.  Arrived  in  June  at  New  Amsterdam — New  York 
city. 

II.  Person. — Was  five  feet  six  inches  high,  six  feet  five  in  circum- 
ference. Head  spherical,  and  too  large  for  any  neck.  Nature  set  it  on 
the  back-bone.  Body  capacious.  Legs  short  and  sturdy.  A  beer- 
barrel  on  skids.  Face  a  vast,  unfurrowed  expanse.  No  lines  of 
thought.  Two  small,  gray  eyes.  Cheeks  had  taken  toll  of  all  that 
had  entered  his  mouth.     Mottled  and  streaked  with  dusky  red. 

III.  Hahits. — Regular.  Four  meals  daily,  each  an  hour  long. 
Smoked  and  doubted  eight  hours.  Slept  twelve.  As  self-contained 
as  an  oyster.  Rarely  spoke  save  in  monosyllables.  But  never  said  a 
foolish  thing.  Never  laughed.  Perplexed  by  a  joke.  Conceived 
everything  on  a  grand  scale.  When  a  question  was  asked,  would  put 
on  a  mysterious  look.  Shake  his  head.  Smoke  in  silence.  Observe, 
at  length,  he  had  doubts.  Presided  at  the  council,  in  state.  Swayed 
a  Turkish  pipe  instead  of  a  scepter.  Known  to  sit  with  eyes  closed 
two  hours.  Internal  commotion  shown  by  guttural  sounds.  Noises  of 
contending  doubts,  admirers  said. 


850  Composition. 


IV.  Exploits. — Settled  a  dispute  about  accounts  thus  :  sent  for 
the  parties  ;  each  produced  his  account-book  ;  Van  T.  weighed  the 
books;  counted  the  leaves;  equally  heavy ;  equally  thick;  made  each 
give  the  other  a  receipt ;  and  the  constable  pay  the  costs.  Demanded 
why  Van  Rensselaer  seized  Bear's  Island.  Battled  with  doubts  regard- 
ing the  Yankees.     Smoked  and  breathed  his  last  together. 

Direction. —  Weave  these  facts  into  four  paragraphs^  write  on  the 
tnargin  the  special  topic  of  each,  and  over  the  whole  what  you  think  is 
the  general  stihject  of  the  theme  : — 

The  prophets  of  Baal  accept  Elijah's  challenge.  They  dress  a  bul- 
lock. Call  on  Baal.  Are  mocked  by  Elijah.  Leap  upon  the  altar. 
Cut  themselves.  Blood.  Cry  till  the  time  of  the  evening  sacrifice. 
No  answer  by  fire.  Elijah  commands  the  people  to  come  near. 
Repairs  an  old  altar  with  twelve  stones,  one  for  each  tribe.  Digs  a 
trench.  Sacrifices.  Pours  water  three  times  upon  it.  Prays.  Fire 
falls,  consumes  flesh,  wood,  stones,  dust,  licks  up  water.  People  see 
it.  Fall  on  their  faces.  Cry  out  twice,  "The  Lord,  he  is  the  God." 
Take  the  prophets  to  the  brook  Kishon,  where  they  are  slain.  Elijah 
ascends  Mount  Carmel.  Bows  in  prayer.  "Go  up  now,  look  toward 
the  sea."  Servant  reports,  "There  is  nothing."  "Go  again  seven 
times."  "  Behold  there  ariseth  a  little  cloud  out  of  the  sea,  like  a 
man's  hand."  Orders  Ahab  to  prepare  his  chariot.  Girding  up  his 
loins,  he  runs  before  Ahab  to  Jezreel. 


LESSON     159. 

PARAGRAPHS    AND    THE   THEME. 

Direction. —  Weave  these  facts  into  as  many  paragraphs  as  you 
think  there  should  be,  using  the  variety  of  expression  insisted  on  in 
Lesson  150,  and  write  on  the  margin  of  each  paragraph  the  special 
topic,  and  over  the  whole  the  general  subject  of  the  theme : — 


Paragraphs  and  the  Theme.  351 


Fort  Ticonderoga  on  a  peninsula.  Formed  by  the  outlet  of  Lake 
George  and  by  Lake  Champlain.  .  Fronts  south;  water  on  three  sides. 
Separated  by  Lake  Champlain  from  Mount  Independence,  and  by  the 
outlet,  from  Mount  Defiance.  Fort  one  hundred  feet  above  the  water. 
May  7,  1775,  two  hundred  and  seventy  men  meet  at  Castleton,  Ver- 
mont. All  but  forty-six,  Green  Mountain  boys.  Meet  to  plan  and 
execute  an  attack  upon  Fort  T.  Allen  and  Arnold  there.  Each  claims 
the  command.  Question  left  to  the  officers.  Allen  chosen.  On  even- 
ing of  the  9th,  they  reach  the  lake.  Difficulty  in  crossing.  Send  for 
a  scow.  Seize  a  boat  at  anchor.  Search,  and  find  small  row  boats. 
Only  eighty-three  able  to  cross.  Day  is  dawning  when  these  reach  the 
shore.  Not  prudent  to  wait.  Allen  orders  all  who  will  follow  him 
to  poise  their  firelocks.  Every  man  responds.  Nathan  Beman,  a  lad, 
guides  them  to  the  fort.  Sentinel  snaps  his  gun  at  A.  Misses  fire. 
Sentinel  retreats.  They  follow.  Rush  upon  the  parade  ground. 
Form.  Loud  cheer.  A.  climbs  the  stairs.  Orders  La  Place,  it  is 
said,  in  the  name  of  the  great  Jehovah  and  the  Continental  Congress, 
to  surrender.  Capture  forty-eight  men.  One  hundred  and  twenty 
cannon.  Used  next  winter  at  the  siege  of  Boston.  Several  swords 
and  howitzers,  small  arms,  and  ammunition. 

Direction. — These  facts  are  thrown  together  promiscuously.  Clas- 
sify them  as  they  seem  to  you  to  he  related.  Determine  the  number  of 
paragraphs  and  their  order,  and  then  do  as  directed  above: — 

Joseph  was  Jacob's  favorite.  Wore  fine  garments.  One  day  was 
sent  to  inquire  after  the  other  sons.  They  were  at  a  distance,  tending 
the  flocks.  Joseph  used  to  dream.  They  saw  him  coming.  Plotted 
to  kill  him.  In  one  dream  his  brothers'  sheaves  bowed  to  his.  In 
another  the  sun,  moon,  and  stars  bowed  to  him.  Plotted  to  throw 
his  body  into  a  pit.  Agreed  to  report  to  their  father  that  some  beast 
had  devoured  Joseph.  Joseph  foolishly  told  these  to  his  brothers. 
Hated  him  because  of  the  dreams  and  their  father's  partiality.    While 


352  Composition. 


the  brothers  were  eating,  Ishmaelites  approached.  They  sat  down  to 
eat.  Were  going  down  into  Egypt.  Camels  loaded  with  spices.  At 
the  intercession  of  Reuben  they  did  not  kill  Joseph.  Threw  him  alive 
into  a  pit.  Ishmaelites  took  him  down  into  Egypt.  Sold  him  to 
Potiphar.  Judah  advised  that  he  be  raised  from  the  pit.  Jacob 
recognized  the  coat.  Refused  comfort.  Rent  his  clothes  and  put  on 
sackcloth.  They  took  his  coat.  Killed  a  kid  and  dipped  the  coat  in 
its  blood.  Brought  it  to  Jacob.  "This  have  we  found  ;  know  now 
whether  it  be  thy  son's  coat  or  no." 


LESSON    160- 

PARAGRAPHS    AND    THE   THEME. 

Direction.— CZassi/y  these  promiscuous  facts,  determine  carefully 
the  number  and  the  order  of  the  paragraphs,  and  then  do  as  directed 
above  : — 

Trafalgar  a  Spanish  promontory.  Near  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar. 
Off  Trafalgar,  fleets  of  Spain  and  France,  October  21,  1805.  Nelson 
in  command  of  the  English  fleet.  The  combined  fleets  in  close  line  of 
battle.  CoUingwood  second  in  command.  Had  more  and  larger  can- 
non than  the  English.  English  fleet  twenty-seven  sail  of  the  line  and 
four  frigates.  Thirty-three  sail  of  the  line  and  seven  frigates.  He 
signaled  those  memorable  words  :  '  *  England  expects  every  man  to  do 
his  duty."  Enemy  had  four  thousand  troops.  Signal  received  with  a 
shout.  They  bore  down.  The  best  riflemen  in  the  enemy's  boats.  C. 
steered  for  the  center.  C.  in  the  Royal  Sovereign  led  the  lee  line  of 
thirteen  ships.  A  raking  fire  opened  upon  the  Victory.  N.  in  the 
Victory  led  the  weather  line.  C.  engaged  the  Sanki  Anfia.  Delighted 
at  being  the  first  in  the  fire.  At  1.15  N.  shot  through  the  shoulder 
and  back.  At  12  the  Victory  opened  fire.  N.'s  secretary  the  first  to 
fall.     Fifty  fell  before  a  shot  was  returned.     "  They  have  done  for  me 


Analysis  of  the  Subject  of  the  Theme.  353 


at  last,  Hardy,"  said  N.  They  bore  him  below.  At  2.25  ten  of  the 
enemy  had  struck.  The  wound  was  mortal.  At  4  fifteen  had  struck. 
The  victory  that  cost  the  British  1,587  men  won.  These  were  his  last 
words.  At  4.30  he  expired.  "  How  goes  the  day  with  us  ?  "  he  asked 
Hardy.  *'I  hope  none  of  our  ships  have  struck."  N.'s  death  was 
more  than  a  public  calamity.  "I  am  a  dead  man,  Hardy,"  he  said. 
Englishmen  turned  pale  at  the  news.  Most  triumphant  death  that  of 
a  martyr.  He  shook  hands  with  Hardy.  "Kiss  me,  Hardy."  They 
mourned  as  for  a  dear  friend.  Kissed  him  on  the  cheek.  Most  awful 
death  that  of  the  martyr  patriot.  The  loss  seemed  a  personal  one. 
Knelt  down  again  and  kissed  his  forehead.  His  articulation  difiicult. 
Heard  to  say,  "Thank  God,  I  have  done  my  duty."  Seemed  as  if 
they  had  not  known  how  deeply  they  loved  him.  Most  splendid  death 
that  of  the  hero  in  the  hour  of  victory.  Has  left  a  name  which  is  our 
pride.  An  example  which  is  our  shield  and  strength.  Buried  him  in 
St.  Paul's.     Thus  the  spirits  of  the  great  and  the  wise  live  after  them. 

To  THE  Teacher.— Continue  this  work  as  long  as  it  is  needed.  Take  any  book,  and 
read  to  the  class  items  of  facts.  Require  them  to  use  the  imagination  and  whatever 
graces  of  style  are  at  their  command,  in  weaving  these  facts  together. 


LESSON    161. 

ANALYSIS  OF  THE  SUBJECT  OF  THE  THEME. 

Analysis  of  the  Subject. — A  Theme  is  made  up  of  groups  of 
sentences  called  Paragraphs.  The  sentences  of  each  paragraph  are 
related  to  each  other,  because  they  jointly  develop  a  single  point,  or 
thought.  And  the  paragraphs  are  related  to  each  other,  because 
these  points  which  they  develop  are  divisions  of  the  one  general  sub- 
ject of  the  Theme. 

After  the  subject  has  been  chosen,  and  before  writing  upon  it,  it 
must  be  resolved  into  the  main  thoughts  which  compose  it.  Upon 
23 


354  Composition. 


the  thoroughness  of  this  analysis  and  the  natural  arrangement  of  the 
thoughts  thus  derived,  depends  largely  the  worth  of  the  theme.  These 
points  form,  when  arranged,  the  Framework  of  the  theme. 

Suppose  you  had  taken  The  Armada  as  your  subject.  Perhaps 
you  could  say  under  these  heads  all  you  wish  :  1,  What  the  Armada 
was.  2.  When  and  ly  whom  equipped.  3.  Its  purpose.  4.  Its  sail- 
over  the  Bay  of  Biscay  and  entrance  into  the  English  Channel.  5. 
The  attack  upon  it  hy  Admiral  Howard  and  his  great  Captains — 
Drake  and  Hawkins.  6.  Its  dispersion  and  partial  destruction  hy  the 
storm.  7.  The  return  to  Spain  of  the  surviving  ships  and  men.  8. 
The  consequences  to  England  and  to  Spain. 

Perhaps  the  1st  point  could  include  the  2d  and  the  3d.  Be  careful 
not  to  split  your  general  subject  up  into  very  many  parts.  See,  too, 
that  no  point  is  repeated,  that  no  point  foreign  to  the  subject  is  intro- 
duced, and  that  all  the  points  together  exhaust  the  subject  as  nearly 
as  may  be.  Look  to  the  arrangement  of  the  points.  There  is  a  nat- 
ural order  ;  (6)  could  not  precede  (5)  ;  nor  (5),  (4)  ;  nor  (4),  (1). 

To  THE  Tbachkr.— Question  the  pupils  carefully  upon  every  point  taken  up  in 
this  Lesson. 

Direction. — Prepare  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  these 
subjects : — 

1.  The  Arrest  of  Major  Andre.     2.  A  Winter  in  the  Arctic  Region. 


LESSON     162. 

ANALYSIS    OF    SUBJECTS. 

Direction. — Prepare  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  these 
subjects  :— 

1.  Battle  of  Plattsburg.  2.  A  Day's  Nutting.  3.  What  Does  a 
Proper  Care  for  One's  Health  Demand  ? 


How  to  Write  a  Theme.  355 


LESSON     163. 

ANALYSIS    OF    SUBJECTS. 

Direction. — Prepare  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  these 
subjects : — 

1.  A  Visit  to  the  Moon.  2.  Reasons  why  one  Should  Not  Smoke. 
2.  What  Does  a  Proper  Observance  of  Sunday  Require  of  One  ? 


LESSON     164. 

ANALYSIS    OF    SUBJECTS. 

Direction. — Prepare  the  framework  of  a  theme  on  each  of  these 
subjects : — 

1.  The  Gulf  Stream.  2.  A  Descent  into  a  Whirlpool.  3.  What 
are  Books  Good  for? 

LESSON    16  5. 

HOW    TO    WRITE    A    THEME. 

I.  Choose  a  Subject. — Choose  your  subject  long  before  you  are  to 
write.  Avoid  a  full,  round  terra  like  Patriotism  or  Duty ;  take  a 
fragment  of  it  ;  as,  How  can  a  Boy  be  Patriotic  f  or  Duties  which  we 
Schoolmates  owe  Each  Other.  The  subject  should  be  on  your  level, 
should  be  interesting  and  suggestive  to  you,  and  should  instantly  start 
in  your  mind  many  trains  of  thought. 

II.  Accumulate  the  Material.— Begin  to  think  about  your  sub- 
ject. Turn  it  over  in  your  mind  in  leisure  moments,  and,  as  thoughts 
flash  upon  you,  jot  them  down  in  your  blank-book.  If  any  of  these 
seem  broad  enough  for  the  main  points,  or  heads,  indicate  this.  Talk 
with  no  one  on  the  subject,  and  read  nothing  on  it,  till  you  have 


356  Composition. 


thought  yourself  empty  ;  and  even  then  you  should  note  down  what 
the  conversation  or  reading  suggests,  rather  than  what  you  have  heard 
or  read. 

III.  Construct  a  Framework. — Before  writing  hunt  through 
your  material  for  the  main  points,  or  heads.  See  to  what  general 
truths  or  thoughts  these  jottings  and  those  jottings  point.  Perhaps 
this  or  that  thought,  as  it  stands,  includes  enough  to  serve  as  a  head. 
Be  sure,  at  any  rate,  that  by  brooding  over  your  material,  and  by  fur- 
ther thinking  upon  the  subject,  you  get  at  all  the  general  thouglits 
into  which,  as  it  seems  to  you,  the  subject  should  be  analyzed.  Study 
these  points  carefully.  See  that  no  two  overlap  each  other,  that  no 
one  appears  twice,  that  no  one  has  been  raised  to  the  dignity  of  a  head 
which  should  stand  under  some  head,  and  that  no  one  is  irrelevant. 
Study  iiow  to  find  the  natural  order  in  which  these  points  should 
stand.  Let  no  point,  to  the  clear  understanding  of  which  some  other 
point  is  necessary,  precede  that  other.  If  developing  all  the  points 
would  make  your  theme  too  long,  study  to  see  what  points  you  can 
omit  without  abrupt  break  or  essential  loss. 

IV.  "Write. — Give  your  whole  attention  to  your  work  as  you  write, 
and  other  thoughts  will  occur  to  you,  and  better  ways  of  putting  the 
thoughts  already  noted  down.  In  expanding  the  main  points  into 
paragraphs,  be  sure  that  everything  falls  under  its  appropriate  head. 
Cast  out  irrelevant  matter.  Do  not  strain  after  effect  or  strive  to 
seem  wiser  than  you  are.  Use  familiar  words,  and  place  these,  your 
phrases,  and  your  clauses,  where  they  will  make  your  thought  the 
clearest.  As  occasion  calls,  change  from  the  usual  order  to  the 
transposed,  and  let  sentences,  simple,  complex,  and  compound,  long 
and  short,  stand  shoulder  to  shoulder  in  the  paragraph.  Express 
yourself  easily — only  now  and  then  putting  your  thought  forcibly  and 
with  feeling.  Let  a  fresh  image  here  and  there  relieve  the  uniformity 
of  plain  language.      One  sentence    should  follow   another  without 


How  to  Write  a  Theme.  857 


abrupt  break  ;  and,  if  continuative  of  it,  adversative  to  it,  or  an  infer- 
ence from  it,  and  the  hearer  needs  to  be  advised  of  this,  let  it  swing 
into  position  on  the  hinge  of  a  Tittirig  connective.  Of  course,  your 
sentences  must  pass  rigid  muster  in  syntax  ;  and  you  must  look 
sharply  to  the  spelling,  to  the  use  of  capital  letters,  and  to  punctua- 
tion. 

V.  Attend  to  the  Mechanical  Execution. — Keep  your  pages 
clean,  and  let  your  handwriting  be  clear.  On  the  left  of  the  page 
leave  a  margin  of  an  inch  for  corrections.  Do  not  write  on  the  fourth 
page  ;  if  you  exceed  three  pages,  use  another  sheet.  When  the  writ- 
ing is  done,  double  the  lower  half  of  the  sheet  over  the  upper,  and  fold 
through  the  middle  ;  then  bring  the  top  down  to  the  middle  and  fold 
again.  Bring  the  right-hand  end  toward  you,  and  across  the  top  write 
your  name  and  the  date.  This  superscription  will  be  at  the  top  of  the 
fourth  page,  at  the  right-hand  corner,  and  at  right  angles  to  the  ruled 
lines. 

To  THE  Tbachbr.— Question  the  pupils  closely  upon  every  point  in  this  Lesson. 

Additional  Subjects  for  Themes. 

1.  Apples  and  Nuts.  16.  Monday  Morning. 

2.  A  Pleasant  Evening.  17.  My  Native  Town. 
8.  My  Walk  to  School.  18.  Over  the  Sea. 

4.  Pluck.  19.  Up  in  a  Balloon. 

5.  School  Friendships.  20.  Queer  People. 

6.  When  my  Ship  Comes  In.  21.  Our  Minister. 

7.  Ancient  and  Modern  Warfare.  22.  A  Plea  for  Puss. 

8.  The  View  from  my  Window.  23.  Castles  in  Spain. 

9.  Homes  without  Hands.  24.  Young  America. 

10.  I  Can.  25.  Black  Diamonds. 

11.  My  Friend  Jack.  26.  Mosquitoes. 

12.  John  Chinaman.  27.  A  D^y  in  the  Woods. 

13.  Irish  Characters.  28.  A  Boy's  Trials. 

14.  Robin  Hood.  29.  The  Yankee. 

15.  A  Visit  to  Olympus.  30.  Robinson  Crusoe. 


358                                          Composition. 

31.  Street  Arabs.            ;v  ;vt  .  . 

59.  The  World  Owes  me  A  Living. 

32.  Legerdemain.            ,,    f, 

60.  Politeness. 

33.  Our  Neighborhood. 

CU.  Cleanliness  Akin  to  Godliness. 

34.  Examinations. 

62.  Fighting  Windmills. 

35.  Theater-going. 

63.  Along  the  Docks. 

36.  Donkeys. 

64.  Maple  Sugar. 

37.  The  Southern  Negro. 

65.  Umbrellas. 

38.  A  Rainy  Saturday. 

66.  A  Girl's  Trials. 

39.  The  Early  Bird   Catches  the 

67.  A  Spider's  Web. 

Worm. 

68.  The  Story  of  Ruth. 

40.  Spring  Sports.  • 

69.  Clouds. 

41.  How  Horati  us  Kept  the  Bridge. 

70.  A  Country  Store. 

42.  Jack  Frost. 

71.  Timepieces. 

43.  My  First  Sea  Voyage. 

72.  Bulls  and  Bears. 

44.  Monkeys. 

73.  Bores. 

45.  Grandmothers. 

74.  Our  Sunday  School. 

46.  The  Boy  of  the  Story  Book. 

75.  The  Making  of  Beer. 

47.  Famous  Streets. 

76.  Autumn's  Colors. 

48.  Pigeons. 

77.  The  Watched  Pot  Never  Boils. 

49.  Jack  and  Gill. 

78.  The  Mission  of  Birds. 

50.  Make  Haste  Slowly. 

79.  Parasites. 

51.  Commerce. 

80.  Well-begun  is  Half-done. 

52.  The  Ship  of  the  Desert. 

81.  The  Tides. 

53.  Winter  Sports. 

82.  The  Schoolmaster  in  "  The  De- 

54.  A  Visit  to  Neptune. 

serted  Village." 

55.  Whiskers. 

83.  A  Day  on  a  Trout  Stream. 

56.  Gypsies. 

84.  A  Stitch  in  Time  Saves  Nine. 

57.  Cities  of  the  Dead. 

85.  Of  What  Use  are  Flowers  ? 

58.  Street  Cries. 

86.  A  Descent  in  a  Diving  Bell. 

LESSON    166, 

LETTER- 

WRITING. 

Letters  need  special  treatment.  In  writing  a  letter  there  are  five 
things  to  consider — The  Heading,  The  Introduction,  The  Body  of  the 
Letter,  The  Conclusion,  and  The  Superscription. 


Letter-Writing.  359 


THE    HEADING, 

Parts. — The  Heading  consists  of  the  name  of  the  Place  at  which 
the  letter  is  written,  and  the  Date.  If  you  write  from  a  city,  give 
the  door-number,  the  name  of  the  street,  the  name  of  the  city,  and  the 
name  of  the  state.  If  you  are  at  a  Hotel  or  a  School  or  any  other 
well-known  Institution,  its  name  may  take  the  place  of  the  door- 
number  and  the  name  of  the  street  ;  as  may  also  the  number  of  your 
post-office  box.  If  you  write  from  a  village  or  other  country  place, 
give  your  post-oflBce  address,  the  name  of  the  county,  and  that  of  the 
state. 

The  Date  consists  of  the  month,  the  day  of  the  month,  and  the  year. 

How  Written. — Begin  the  Heading  about  an  inch  and  a  half  from 
the  top  of  the  page — on  the  first  ruled  line  of  commercial  note.  If 
the  letter  occupies  but  a  few  lines  of  a  single  page,  you  may  begin  the 
Heading  lower  down.  Begin  the  first  line  of  the  Heading  a  little  to 
the  left  of  the  middle  of  the  page.  If  it  occupies  more  than  one  line, 
the  second  line  should  begin  farther  to  the  right  than  the  first,  and 
the  third  farther  to  the  right  than  the  second. 

The  door-number,  the  day  of  month,  and  the  year  are  written  in 
figures  ;  the  rest,  in  words.  Each  important  word  begins  with  a  capi- 
tal letter,  each  item  is  set'  off  by  the  comma,  and  the  whole  closes  with 
a  period. 

Direction. — Study  what  has  been  said,  and  write  the  follovdng 
headings  according  to  these  models : — 

1.  Ripton,  Addison  Co.,  Vt.,  3.  Saco,  Me.,  Feb.  35,  1887. 

July  10,  1895.  4.  Polytechnic  Institute, 

2.  250  Broadway,  N.  Y.,  Brooklyn,  N.  Y., 

June  6,  1890.  May  3,  1888. 

1.  ann  arbor  5  July  1820  michigan  2.  champlain  co  clinton  n  y  jan 
14  1800  3.  p  o  box  2678  1860  oct  19  Chicago  4.  Philadelphia  670 
1858  chestnut  st  16  apr    5.  saint  nicholas  new  york  1  hotel  nov  18S5 


Composition. 


THE   INTRODUCTION. 

Parts. — The  Introduction  consists  of  the  Address — the  Name,  the 
Title,  and  the  Place  of  Business  or  Residence  of  the  one  addressed — 
and  the  Salutation.  Titles  of  respect  and  courtesy  should  appear  in 
the  Address.  Prefix  Mr.  to  a  man's  name,  Messrs.  to  the  names  of 
several  gentlemen  ;  Master  to  the  name  of  a  young  lad  ;  Miss  to  that 
of  an  unmarried  lady  ;  Mrs.  to  that  of  a  married  lady  ;  Misses  to  the 
names  of  several  young  ladies  ;  and  Mesdames  to  those  of  several 
married  or  elderly  ladies.  Prefix  Dr.  to  the  name  of  a  physician  (but 
never  Mr.  Dr.),  or  write  M.D.  after  it.  Prefix  Rev.  to  the  name  of  a 
clergyman,  or  Bev.  Mr.  if  you  do  not  know  his  Christian  name  ;  Eev. 
Dr.  if  he  is  a  Doctor  of  Divinity,  or  write  Bev.  before  the  name  and 
D.D.  after  it.  Prefix  His  Excellency  to  the  name  of  the  President,* 
and  to  that  of  a  Governor  or  of  an  Ambassador  ;  Hon.  to  the  name 
of  a  Cabinet  Officer,  a  Member  of  Congress,  a  State  Senator,  a  Law 
Judge,  or  a  Mayor,  If  two  literary  or  professional  titles  are  added  to 
a  name,  let  them  stand  in  the  order  in  which  they  were  conferred — 
this  is  the  order  of  a  few  common  ones  :  A.M.,  Ph.D.,  D.D.,  LL.D. 
Guard  against  an  excessive  use  of  titles — the  higher  implies  the 
lower. 

Salutations  vary  with  the  station  of  the  one  addressed,  or  the 
writer's  degree  of  intimacy  with  him.  Strangers  may  be  addressed 
as  Sir,  Dear  Sir,  Rev.  Sir,  General,  Madam,  etc. ;  acquaintances  as 
Dear  Sir,  Dear  Madam,  etc. ;  friends  as  My  dear  Sir,  My  dear 
Madam,  My  dear  Jones,  etc. ;  and  near  relatives  and  other  dear 
friends  as  My  dear  Wife,  My  dear  Boy,  Dearest  Ellen,  etc. 

How  Written. — The  Address  may  follow  the  Heading,  beginning 
on  the  next  line,  and  standing  on  the  left  side  of  the  page  ;  or  it  may 
stand  in  corresponding  position  after  the  Body  of  the  Letter  and  the 

*  The  preferred  form  of  addressing  the  President  is,  To  the  President,  Executive 
Mansion,  Washington,  B.  C. ;  the  Salutation  is  simply,  Mr.  President. 


Letter-Writingr.  361 


Conclusion.  If  the  letter  is  of  an  official  character  or  is  written  to  an 
intimate  friend,  the  Address  may  appropriately  be  placed  at  the  bottom 
of  the  letter  ;  but  in  ordinary  business  letters,  it  should  be  placed  at 
the  top  and  as  directed  above.  Never  omit  it  from  the  letter  except 
■when  the  letter  is  written  in  the  third  person.  There  should  be  a 
narrow  margin  on  the  left  side  of  the  page,  and  the  Address  should 
begin  on  the  marginal  line.  If  the  Address  occupies  more  than 
one  line,  the  initial  words  of  these  lines  should  slope  to  the  right. 

Begin  the  Salutation  on  the  marginal  line  or  a  little  to  the  right  of 
it  when  the  Address  occupies  three  lines  ;  on  the  marginal  line  or 
farther  to  the  right  or  to  the  left  than  the  second  line  of  the  Address 
when  this  occupies  two  lines  ;  a  little  to  the  right  of  the  marginal  line 
when  the  Address  occupies  one  line  ;  on  the  marginal  line  when  the 
Address  stands  below. 

Every  important  word  in  the  Address  should  begin  with  a  capital 
letter.  All  the  items  of  it  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma;  and,  as  it  is 
an  abbreviated  sentence,  it  should  close  with  a  period.  Every  impor- 
tant word  in  the  Salutation  should  begin  with  a  capital  letter,  and  the 
whole  should  be  followed  by  a  comma,  or  by  a  comma  and  a  dash. 

Direction. —  Write  these  introductions  according  to  the  models  : — 

1.  Prof.  March,  Easton,  Pa.  3.  My  dear  Mother, 

My  dear  Sir,  When,  etc. 

2.  Messrs.  Smith  &  Jones,  4.  Messrs.  Vallette  &  Co., 

771  Broadway,  Middlebury,  Vt. 

New  York  City.  Dear  Sirs, 

Gentlemen, 

1.  mr  george  platt  burlington  iowa  sir  2.  mass  Cambridge  prof 
James  r  lowell  my  dear  friend  3.  messrs  ivison  blakeman  taylor  &  co 
gentlemen  new  york  4.  rev  brown  dr  the  arlington  Washington  dear 
friend  do    5.  col  John  smith  dear  colonel  n  y  auburn 


Composition. 


LESSON      16  7. 

LETTER-WRITING-CONTINUED. 

THE    BODY    OF    THE    LETTER. 

The  Beginning. — Begin  the  Body  of  the  Letter  at  the  end  of  the 
Salutation,  and  on  the  same  line  if  the  Introduction  is  long^n  which 
case  the  comma  after  the  Salutation  should  be  followed  by  a  dash,^-on 
the  line  below  if  the  Introduction  is  short. 

Style. — Be  perspicuous.  Paragraph  and  punctuate  as  in  other 
kinds  of  writing.  Avoid  blots,  erasures,  interlineations,  cross  lines,  and 
all  other  offenses  against  epistolary  propriety.  The  letter  "  bespeaks 
the  man."  Letters  of  friendship  should  be  colloquial,  chatty,  and 
familiar.  Whatever  is  interesting  to  you  will  be  interesting  to  your 
friends,  however  trivial  it  may  seem  to  a  stranger. 

Business  letters  should  be  brief,  and  the  sentences  short,  concise, 
and  to  the  point.     Repeat  nothing,  and  omit  nothing  needful. 

Official  letters  and  formal  notes  should  be  more  stately  and  cere- 
monious. In  formal  notes  the  third  person  is  generally  used  instead 
of  the  first  and  the  second  ;  there  is  no  Introduction,  no  Conclusion, 
no  Signature,  only  the  name  of  the  Place  and  the  Date  at  the  bottom, 
on  the  left  side  of  the  page,  thus  : — 

Mr.  &  Mrs.  A.  request  the  pleasure  of  Mr.  B.^s  company  at  a  social 
gathering,  on  Tuesday  evening,  Nov.  15th,  at  eight  o'clock. 

32  Fifth  Ave.,  Nov.  5. 

Mr.  B.  accepts*  with  pleasure  Mr.  &  Mrs.  A.'s  hind  invitation  for 
Tuesday  evening,  Nov.  \5th. 
Wednesday  morning,  Nov.-  9th. 

*  Or  regrets  that  a  previous  engagement  (or  illness,  or  an  unfortunate  event)  pre- 
vents the  acceptance  of ;  or  regrets  that  on  account  of he  is  unable  to 

accept . 


Letter-Writing-ContinuGd.  363 


THE    CONCLUSION. 


Parts. — The  Conclusion  consists  of  the   Complimentary  Close 

and  the  Signature.  The  forms  of  the  Complimentary  Close  are 
many,  and  are  determined  by  the  relations  of  the  writer  to  the  one 
addressed.  In  letters  of  friendship  you  may  use,  Your  sincere  friend; 
Yours  affectionately ;  Your  loving  son  or  daughter,  etc.  In  business 
letters  you  may  use,  Yours  ;  Yours  truly  ;  Truly  yours  ;  Yours  respect- 
fully ;  Very  respectfully  yours,  etc.  In  oflQcial  letters  you  should  be 
more  deferential.  Use,  /  have  the  honor  to  he,  Sir,  your  obedient  ser- 
vant;  Very  respectfully,  your  most  obedient  servant ;  etc.,  etc. 

The  Signature  consists  of  your  Christian  name  and  your  surname. 
In  addressing  a  stranger  write  your  Christian  name  in  full,  A  lady 
addressing  a  stranger  should  prefix  to  her  signature  her  title,  Mrs. 
or  Miss  (placing  it  within  marks  of  parenthesis),  unless  in  the  letter 
she  has  indicated  which  of  these  titles  her  correspondent  is  to  use  in 
reply. 

How  "Written. — The  Conclusion  should  begin  near  the  middle  of 
the  first  line  below  the  Body  of  the  Letter,  and,  if  occupying  two  or 
more  lines,  should  slope  to  the  right  like  the  Heading  and  the  Ad- 
dress. Begin  each  line  of  it  with  a  capital  letter,  and  punctuate  as  in 
other  writing,  following  the  whole  with  a  period.  The  Signature 
should  be  very  plain. 

Direction. — Write  two  formal  notes — one  inviting  a  friend  to  a 
social  party,  and  one  declining  the  invitation. 

Direction. —  Write  the  Co?iclusion  of  a  letter  of  friendship,  of  a 
letter  of  business,  and  of  an  official  letter,  carefully  observing  all  that 
has  been  said  above. 

Direction. —  Write  a  letter  of  two  or  three  lines  to  your  father  or 
your  mother,  and  another  to  your  minister,  taking  care  to  give  prep- 


Composition. 


erly  the  Heading  in  its  two  parts,  the  Introduction  in  its  two  parts, 
a/nd  the  Conclusion  in  its  two  parts.  Let  the  Address  in  the  letter  to 
your  father  or  your  mother  stand  at  the  bottom. 


LESSON    16  8. 

LETTER-WRITING-CONTINUED. 

THE   SUPERSCRIPTION. 

Parts. — The  Superscription  is  what  is  written  on  the  outside  of  the 
envelope.  It  is  the  same  as  the  Address,  consisting  of  the  Name,  the 
Title,  and  the  full  Directions  of  the  one  addressed. 

How  Written. — The  Superscription  should  begin  just  below  the 
middle  of  the  envelope  and  near  the  left  edge — the  envelope  lying 
with  its  closed  side  toward  you — and  should  occupy  three  or  four 
lines.  These  lines  should  slope  to  the  right  as  in  the  Heading  and 
the  Address,  the  spaces  between  the  lines  should  be  the  same,  and 
the  last  line  should  end  near  the  lower  right-hand  corner.  On  the 
first  line  the  Name  and  the  Title  should  stand.  If  the  one  addressed 
is  in  a  city,  the  door-number  and  name  of  the  street  should  be  on 
the  second  line,  the  name  of  the  city  on  the  third,  and  the  name 
of  the  state  on  the  fourth.  If  he  is  in  the  country,  the  name  of  the 
post-oiiice  should  be  on  the  second  line,  the  name  of  the  county  on  the 
third,  the  name  of  the  state  on  the  fourth.  The  number  of  the  post- 
office  box  may  take  the  place  of  the  door-number  and  the  name  of 
the  street,  or,  to  avoid  crowding,  the  number  of  the  box  or  the  name 
of  the  county  may  stand  at  the  lower  left-hand  corner.  The  titles  fol- 
lowing the  name  should  be  separated  from  it  and  from  each  other  by 
the  comma,  and  every  line  should  end  with  a  comma  except  the  last, 
which  should  be  followed  by  a  period.*    The  lines  should  be  straight, 

*  Some  omit  punctuation  after  the  parts  of  the  Superscription. 


Letter-Wrltingr— Continued. 


365 


and  every  part  of  the  Superscription  should  be  legible.     Place  the 
stamp  at  the  upper  right-hand  corner. 

5 

Direction. —  Write  six  Superscriptions  to  real  or  imaginary  friends 
or  acquaintances  in  different  cities,  carefully  observing  all  that  has 
been  said  above. 

Direction. —  Write  two  short  letters — one  to  a  friend  at  the  Astor 
House,  New  York,  and  one  to  a  stranger  in  the  country. 


{iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiii 


=    STAMP.    S 
I  = 

nTiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiir 


yiizu^^^^^-'^^i^  ^d^^-' .^'^^^^^-u^^'^'^^ 


0^i4i^g^!^^^. 


y^^Z^^. 


^^^^^zy- 


^^T'Z^^ 


(/^:^u4^..'^Ui^ 


368  A  Summary  of  the  Rules  of  Syntax. 


A    SUMMARY    OF    THE    RULES    OF    SYNTAX. 

We  here  append  a  Summary  of  the  so-called  Rules  of  Syntax,  with 
references  to  the  Lessons  which  treat  of  Construction. 

I.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  subject  or  as  attribute 
complement  of  a  predicate  verb,  or  used  independently,  is 
in  the  nominative  case. 

II.  The  attribute  complement  of  a  participle  or  an  infin- 
itive is  in  the  same  case  (Nom.  or  Obj.)  as  the  word  to 
which  it  relates. 

III.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  possessive  modifier  is  in 
the  possessive  case. 

ly.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  object  complement,  as 
objective  complement,  as  the  principal  word  in  a  prepo- 
sitional phrase,  or  used  adverbially*  is  in  the  objective 
case. 

V.  A  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  explanatory  modifier  is  in 

the  same  case  as  the  word  explained. 

For  Cautions,  Principles,  and  Examples  respecting  the  cases  of  nouns  and 
pronouns,  see  Lessons  119,  122,  123,  125.  For  Cautions  and  Examples  to 
guide  in  the  use  of  the  different  pronouns,  see  Lessons  86,  87. 

VI.  A  pronoun  agrees  with  its  antecedent  in  person, 
number,  and  gender. 

For  Cautions,  Principles,  and  Examples,  see  Lessons  118, 142, 

YII.  A  verb  agrees  with  its  subject  in  person  and  number. 

For  Cautions,  Examples,  and  Exceptions,  see  Lesson  142. 

*  See  Lesson  35. 


A  Summary  of  the  Rules  of  Syntax. 


VIII.  A  participle  assumes  the  action  or  being,  and  is 
used  like  an  adjective  or  a  noun. 

For  Uses  of  the  Participle,  see  Lessons  37,  38,  39. 

IX.  An  infinitive  is  generally  introduced  by  to,  and  with 
it  forms  a  phrase  used  as  a  noun,  an  adjective,  or  an 
adverb. 

For  Uses  of  the  Infinitive,  see  Lessons  40,  41,  42. 

X.  Adjectives  modify  nouns  or  pronouns. 

For  Cautions  and  Examples  respecting  the  use  of  adjectives  and  of  coxn- 
parative  and  superlative  forms,  see  Lessons  90,  91, 128. 

XI.  Adverbs  modify  verbs,  adjectives,  or  adverbs. 
For  Cautions  and  Examples,  see  Lesson  93. 

XII.  A  preposition  introduces  a  phrase  modifier,  and 
shows  the  relation,  in  sense,  of  its  principal  word  to  the 
word  modified. 

For  Cautions,  see  Lessons  98,  99. 

XIII.  Conjunctions  connect  words,  phrases,  or  clauses. 
For  Cautions  and  Examples,  see  Lessons  100, 107. 

XIV.  Interjections  are  used  independently. 
24 


370  Conjugation  of  the  Verb. 


CONJUGATION  OF  THE  VERB. 

Remarks. — The  scheme  of  conjugation  presented  below  is  from 
English  text-books.  In  some  of  these  books  the  forms  introduced  by 
should  are  classed,  not  as  Future,  but  as  Secondary  Past  Tense  forms 
of  the  Subjunctive. 

If  we  substitute  this  scheme  of  conjugation  for  the  simpler  one 
given  in  the  preceding  pages,  we  still  fail  to  get  a  classification  in 
which  every  form  corresponds  in  use  to  its  name.  The  following 
examples  will  illustrate  : — 

He  returns  to-morrow.     (Present  =  Future.) 

When  I  have  performed  this,  I  will  come  to  you.  (Present  Perfect 
=  Future  Perfect.) 

If  any  member  absents  himself,  he  shall  pay  a  fine.  (Indicative  = 
Subjunctive.) 

You  shall  go.     (Indicative  =  Imperative.) 

After  memorizing  all  the  terms  and  forms  belonging  to  the  conju- 
gation here  outlined,  the  student  will  find  that  he  has  gained  little  to 
aid  him  in  the  use  of  language.  For  instance,  in  this  synopsis  of  the 
Subjunctive  are  found  nineteen  forms.  As  there  are  three  persons  in 
the  singular  and  three  in  the  plural,  we  have  one  hundred  and  four- 
teen subjunctive  forms  !  How  confusing  all  this  must  be  to  the  stu- 
dent, who,  in  his  use  of  the  subjunctive,  needs  to  distinguish  only  such 
as  these  :  If  he  he,  If  he  were,  If  he  teach!  Beyond  these,  the  sub- 
junctive manner  of  assertion  is  discovered  from  the  structure  of  the 
sentence  or  the  relation  of  clauses,  not  from  the  conjugation  of  the 
verb. 

Those  English  authors  and  their  American  copyists  who  eliminate 
the  Potential  Mode  from  their  scheme  of  conjugation  tell  us  that  the 
so-called  potential  auxiliaries  are  either  independent  verbs  in  the 
indicative  or  are  subjunctive  auxiliaries.  With  the  meager  instruc- 
tion given  by  any  one  or  by  all  of  these  authors,  the  student  will  find 
it  exceedingly  difficult  to  determine  when  these  auxiliaries  are  true 
subjunctives.     To  illustrate  : — 

1.  May  you  be  happy. 

2.  I  learn  that  I  may  be  able  to  teach. 


Conjugation  of  the  Verb,  371 


3.  He  might  have  done  it  if  he  had  liked. 

4.  If  he  should  try,  he  would  succeed. 

5.  I  would  not  tell  you  if  I  could. 

6.  I  could  not  do  this  if  I  were  to  try. 

The  forms  italicized  above  are  said  to  be  subjunctive  auxiliaries ; 
those  below  are  said  to  be  independent  verbs  in  the  indicative. 

7.  He  may  be  there. 

8.  He  might  ask  you  to  go. 

•  9.  You  should  not  have  done  that. 

10.  He  would  not  come  when  called. 

11.  I  could  do  this  at  one  time. 

We  are  told  that  can  and  must  are  always  independent  verbs  in  the 
indicative,  and  that  may,  might,  could,  would,  and  should  are  either 
subjunctive  auxiliaries  or  independent  verbs  parsed  in  the  indicative, 
separately  from  the  infinitives  with  which  they  seem  to  combine.  But 
in  parsing  these  words  as  separate  verbs  the  student  is  left  in  doubt  as 
to  whether  they  are  transitive  or  intransitive,  and  as  to  the  office  of 
the  infinitives  that  follow. 

Shall  (to  owe)  and  will  (to  determine)  are,  in  their  original  meaning, 
transitive.  May,  can,  and  must  denote  power  (hence  potential) ;  and, 
as  the  infinitive  with  which  they  combine  names  the  act  on  which  this 
power  is  exercised,  some  philologists  regard  them  as  originally  transi- 
tive. Among  these  iS  our  distinguished  critic,  Prof.  Francis  A.  March. 
May  denotes  power  from  without  coming  from  a  removal  of  all  hin- 
drance,— hence  permission  or  possibility.  Can  denotes  power  from 
within, — hence  ability.  Must  denotes  power  from  without  coming 
from  circumstances  or  the  nature  of  things, — hence  necessity  or  obli- 
gation. Should,  would,  might,  and  could  are  past  forms  of  shall,  will, 
may,  and  can. 

The  auxiliaries  take  different  shades  of  meaning.  In  some  con- 
structions the  meaning  is  fainter  or  less  emphatic  than  in  others.  To 
say  just  how  little  of  its  common  or  original  meaning  may,  can,  must, 
shall,  or  will  must  have  to  be  an  auxiliary,  and  how  much  to  be  a 
"notional,"  or  independent,  verb  would  be  extremely  venturesome. 
For  instance,  could  in  (6)  above  expresses  power  or  ability  to  do,  as 
does  could  in  (11),  yet  we  are  told  that  the  former  could  is  a  mere  aux- 
iliary^ while  the  latter  is  an  independent  verb.     May  in  (1)  denotes  a 


372  Conjugation  of  the  Verb. 


desired  removal  of  all  hindrance  ;  may  in  (7)  denotes  a  possible  re- 
moval of  hindrance.  It  is  hard  to  see  why  the  former  may  is  neces- 
sarily a  mere  auxiliary,  and  the  latter  a  "notional,"  or  independent, 
verb.  These  are  some  of  the  difficulties — not  to  say  inconsistencies — 
met  by  the  student  who  is  taught  that  there  is  no  Potential  Mode. 

In  a  scholarly  work  revised  by  Skeat,  Wrightson,  speaking  of  I 
may,  can,  shall,  or  will  love,  says,  "  These  auxiliary  verbs  had  at  some 
time  such  a  clear  and  definite  meaning  that  it  would  have  been  toler- 
ably easy  to  determine  the  case  function  discharged  by  the  infinitive  ; 
but  these  verbs,  after  passing  through  various  shades  of  meaning,  have 
at  last  become  little  more  than  conventional  symbols,  so  that  it  would 
be  worse  than  useless  to  attempt  to  analyze  these  periphrastic  tenses 
of  our  moods." 


A  Conjugration  of  Teach.  373 


A  CONJUGATION  OF  TEACH. 
Active  Voice. 

INDICATIVE  MODS. 

Present  Indefinite He  teaches. 

Present  Imperfect He  is  teaching. 

Present  Perfect He  has  taught. 

Present  Perfect  Continuous He  has  been  teaching. 

Past  Indefinite He  taught. 

Past  Imperfect He  was  teaching. 

Past  Perfect He  had  taught. 

Past  Perfect  Continuous He  had  been  teaching. 


Indefinite He  will  teach. 

Future  Imperfect He  will  be  teaching. 

Future  Perfect He  will  have  taught. 

Future  Perfect  Continuous He  will  have  been  teaching. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present  Indefinite (If)  he  teach. 

Present  Imperfect (If)  he  be  teaching. 

Present  Perfect (If)  he  have  taught. 

Present  Perfect  Continuous (If)  he  have  been  teaching. 

Past  Indefinite (If)  he  taught. 

Past  Imperfect (If)  he  were  teaching. 

Past  Perfect (If)  he  had  taught. 

Past  Perfect  Continuous (If)  he  had  been  teaching. 

Future  Indefinite (If)  he  should  teach. 

Future  Imperfect (If)  he  should  be  teaching. 

Future  Perfect  (If)  he  should  have  taught. 

Future  Perfect  Continuous (If)  he  should  have  been  teaching. 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present Teach  [thou]. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

Present  Indefinite (To)  teach. 

Present  Imperfect (To)  be  teaching. 

Present  Perfect (To)  have  taught. 

Present  Perfect  Continuous (To)  have  been  teaching. 


374  A  Conjugration  of  Teach. 


PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfeet ;.... Teaching. 

Perfect Having  taught. 

Perfect  Continnoiu .Having  been  teaching. 

Passive  Voice. 

INDICATIVB  MODE. 

Present  Indefinite .He-is  taught. 

Present  Imperfect He  is  being  taught. 

Present  Perfect He  has  been  taught. 

Past  Indefinite He  was  taught. 

Past  Imperfect He  was  being  taught. 

Past  Perfect .He  had  been  taught. 

Pnture  Indefinite ; He  will  be  taught. 

Future  Imperfect 

Future  Perfect He  will  have  been  taught. 

SUBJUNCTIVE   MODE, 

Present  Indefinite (If )  he  be  taught. 

Present  Imperfect 

Present  Perfect (If)  he  have  been  taught. 

Past  Indefinite (If)  he  were  taught. 

Past  Imperfect (If)  he  were  being  taught. 

Past  Perfect , (If)  he  had  been  taught. 

Future  Indefinite (If)  he  should  be  taught. 

Future  Imperfect ■ 

Future  Perfect (If)  he  should  have  been  taught 

IMPERATIVE   MODE. 

Present Be  [thou]  taught. 

INFINITIVE  MODE. 

Present  Indefinite (To)  be  taught. 

Present  Perfect (To)  have  been  taught. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect Being  taught. 

Perfect Taught. 

Compooad  Perfect Having  been  taught 


INDEX. 


A,  or  an,  i 

A  and  the, 
A  (day)  or 

Abbrevia- 
tions, 

Absolute 
Phrases, 


Adjectives, 


PAGE 

1868  of 182-185 

uses  of  distinguished 183 

two,  or  one  or  two  (days) 

250  (note) 

{common  ones 19 
how  made  and  written.  17, 18 
of  names  of  states 19 

/  definition  of 81,82 

^  diagram  of 71 

'  expansion  of 142,  143 

Adjective  an,  definition  of 22,  23, 181 

apt  ones  to  be  used 185 

/  definitive    (nu- 
<     meral),  181  &  note 

'  descriptive 181 

-adjectives  not 
compared 259 

I'  adjectives  ir- 
regularly com- 
pared   260 

form  preferred.  259 
in  er  and  est..  258 
with   adverb, 

258,  259 
descriptive,  used  as  nouns,  251 
errors  in  use  of.,  .56,  185,  192 
having    number    forms, 

257  (note) 
needless  ones  avoided..  185 
not  always  limiting, 

181  &  note 
not  used  for  adverbs.  .55,  192 

,  1  cardinal.  181  (note) 

numeral-^      ,.     ,    ^^^  ;     ^  (^ 

I  ordmal..  181  (note) 

proper  order  of 25,  26 

scheme  for  general  re- 
view  265 

used  as  abstract  nouns, 

173  (note) 


classes, 


compari- 
son, 


PAGE 

connectives  of 201 

definition  of 102 

=  adjectives 102,  107 

=  explanatory  modifiers.  109 
=  independent  clauses, 

107  (note) 

=  infinitive  phrases 108 

Adjective    j   =  participle  phrases 108 

Clanses,      j   =  possessives 109 

modifying  omitted  words, 

105,  106 

position  of 107 

restrictive  and  unrestric- 

tive 106,  107  (note) 

unrestrictive,      punctua- 

l      tion 106 

Adjective     Complement     distinguished 

from  adverb  modifier 55 

Adjective    )  analysis  of 24 

Modifiers,     '  nouns  as 57-61 

Adverb  an,  definition  of 27,  28,  189 

r  apt  ones  to  be  used 190 

classes  of 188-190 

comparison  of 260,  261 

errors  in  use  of. .  .56,  190-193 
expressing  negation, 

188  (note) 
irregular  comparison  of.  261 
f  clauses. .  ^.189  (note) 
Adverbs,     J  phrases, 

modi-j  31,  33,  189  (note) 

fying  }  prepositions, 

j  33,  189  (note) 

[sentences..  189  (note) 

not  used  for  adjectives,  55,192 

not  used  needlessly 190 

position  of 29,  191 

scheme  for  general   re- 
view   265,  266 


376 


Index. 


Adverbs 

(cont.\ 


used- 


Adverb 
Clauses, 


PAGE 

sometimes  like  adjective 

•  attributes 52 

f  independently, 
I  82,  189  (note) 

interrogatively, 

189  (note) 
with  connective 

i  [     force 189  (note) 

Adverb  Clause,  definition  of 110 

cause,  real, 

113,  114 
concession, 

115,  116 
condition, 

115,  116 
classes,     -i  degree  (result), 

110-112 
evidence..  113,  114 
manner.  ,.113,  114 

place 110,  111 

purpose...  115,  116 

L  time 110,  111 

by     omitting 

words 121 

to  absolute 

phrases 119 

to  participles 
and  partici- 
ple phrases, 

119 
to    prepo- 
sitional 

phrases 120 

=  adjective     clauses     and 

phrases 107  (note),  121 

=  adverbs 109, 110 

=  independent  clauses, 

107  (note),  138,  139 

position  of 118 

punctuation  of 117 

I  analysis  of 28 

^  nouns  as 62 

'  parsing  of 28 

Adversative  Connectives,  list 201 

Adversative,  meaning  of,  132, 134,  201  (note) 
A  few,  a  little,  vs.  few  and  little 184 


contracted  - 


Adverbial 
Modifiers, 


Alpha- 
bet, 


PAGE 

r  of  parts  of  a  metaphor 344 

Agree-  J  of   pronoun  with  its  ante- 

ment,    |       cedent , 305^307 

l^  of  verb  with  the  subject. 303-307 

Allusion. 87  (note) 

definition  of 5 

perfect  one  what 5 

the  English  imperfect  how..      5 
Alternative,  meaning  of,  132,  134,  201  (note) 

Alternative  Connectives,  list 201 

Ambiguity  of  pronouns.howavoided. 174,175 
I  examples  for,  additional.313-324 

Analysis,  <  of  a  sentence 8 

'  of  subjects  of  themes . .  .353-355 
Antecedent,  a  clause,  phrase,  or  word, 

172  (note),  173 

Antithesis 136  (note),  336 

Any  body  (or  one)  else^s 251  (note) 

Apostrophe  the 61,  240-242,  331 

Appositives 57 

Argumentative  Style 164,  167 

Arrangement.  89-99, 178, 185, 186,191,338-340 

(  definite 181 

(  indefinite 181 

errors  in  use  of 183-186 

repeated  when 183,  184 

uses  of  a,  or  an,  and  the. . .  183 
introductory  con  junction.  52,  54, 135 

relative  pronoun 172  (note) 

with  clauses  of  degree,  manner, 

and  time Ill,  113,  114,  201 

with  variety  of  clauses 203 

.  as,  construction  of Ill 

As  it  were,  construction  of 135 

Aspirates 5,  6 

Assumed  Subject,  what 74 

Attribute    j  definition  of 50 

Complement,  1  diagram  of 51 

Auxiliary  Verbs, 

273,  274,  284, 290,  291,  301,  302,  370-372 

^      (  conjugation  of 284-286 

'  1  derivation  of 284  (note) 

Beside  and  besides  distinguished  .197  (note) 

Best  of  the  two 262 

Between  with  three  or  more 195  (note) 

Brackets,  use  of 331 


r  classes, 


Articles, 


As, 


As 


Index. 


377 


BiU,  ■{ 


Capital 
Letters, 


PAGE 

adversative  conjunction 201 

a  preposition 76,  218 

various  uses  of 212 

with  or  without  that . . .  176  (note) 
with  what  incorrect  for  but 

^      that  or  but 176  (note) 

Can 275  (note),  2S4,  370-372 

in  abbreviations 14 

in  beginning  sentences  ....      9 

in  class  names 15 

in  compound  names 15-17 

in  names  of  the  Deity 16 

in  proper  names 14-17 

in  titles 16 

rule  for /and  <9 42 

summary  of  rules  for 325 

defined 234,  236 

of  attribute  complement,  237  &  note 

of  explanatory  modifier 236 

of  nounorpronoun  independent  236 
of  noun  or  pronoun  used  ad- 
verbially   238 

.  of  objective  complement 237 

(  definitions  of 236 

in    Anglo-Saxon     and     in 

Latin 234  (note) 

f  errors  in  use  of 251-254 

five  pronouns  have  three  . .  251 

nouns  have  two 240 

only  eight  nominative 252 

I  only  seven  objective 252 

Cause,  adverbs  of 189 

Cause  Clauses,  divisible 115 

necessity  of 12 

not    governed    by   logical 

relation 107  (note) 

classes    j  <5^P^'^<lent--102,  133 

'   1  independent.  102, 133 

complex  and  compound,139,140 

adjective 102 

adverb 110 

noun 123 

inde-      f  in  alternation  . .  134 

pendent,  J  in  contrast 134 

(the     I  in  same  line  ...  134 
thought)  [  inferred 135 


Cases, 


Case 
Forms, 


Classi- 
fication, 


Clauses, 


depend- 
ent. 


Compari- 
son, 


Comple- 
ment, 

Comple- 
ments, 

Complex 
Sentence, 


PAGE 

Collective  j  form  of  verb  with 304 

Nouns,     1  of  what  number 225 

Colon 136,  329 

Comma,  rules  for, 

34,  40,  59,  72,  83,  106,  117,  127,  135,  326 

r  adjectives  without  it 259 

cautions  to  guide  in.  .261-264 

definition  of 257 

degree  used  with  two 262 

degrees  of,  defined. .  .257.  258 
double,  origin  of. .  .259  (note) 
double,  to  be  shunned.. .  263 

errors  in  use  of 262-264 

forms  of , 258,  259 

irregular... 260,261 

when  adverb  used 258,  259 

which  form  preferred 259 

^  is  what 48 

I  the  modified  is  what ... .    48 

f  attribute 50 

J  (subjective) 50  (note) 

I  object 48 

I  objective 54 

j  definition 102.  133 

<  treatment  of 102-132 

Compound  Attribute  Complement 50 

Compound  Object  Complement 48 

Compound  Personal  Pronouns.  172, 248  &  note 

Compound  Predicate,  defined 38 

Compound  Relative  Pronouns 173,  249 

f  changed  to  complex..  138,  130 

Compound  J  contracted 137,  138 

Sentence,  1  defined 132,  133 

[  treatment  of 132-139 

Compound  Subject,  defined 38 

Condition  Clauses  without  conjunction.  116 

definition  of 273 

forms  of 279-289 

more  elaborate  form. 373,  374 

Conjunction  a  definition  of 37,  38,  200 

co-ordinate. 200,  201 


Conjuga- 
tion, 


r   classes 


Conjunc- 
tions,    ■{ 


■\ 


co-or- 
dinate , 


subordinate  200,  202 

adversative, 

132,  134,  201  &  note 

alternative, 

132, 134,  201  &  note 


878 


Index. 


Goiyane 

tiODS 

{cont.). 


PAGE 

co-or-     I  copulative, 
dinate,    \  132,  134,  201  &  note 
co-ordinate    connect    sen- 
tences and  paragraphs, 

200  (note) 

,  scheme  for  review 215 

Conjunctive  j  are  what 189  &  note* 

Adverbs,     ^  offices  of 106,  110-1 13 

apt  ones  to  be  chosen 208 

,  adversative 201 

co-or-     )  alternative 201 

^^^^'   i  copulative 201 

errors  in  use  of 208-210 

in  correlation 207 

introductory 200  (note) 

of    adjective 
clauses 201 


Connect- 
ives, 


subor- 
dinate, 


-!   of  adverb  clauses. 


201,  202 


I-  of  noun  clauses.  202 

Consonants,  classes  of 5, 6 

Contraction  of  Sentences. . .  .99-101,  137,  138 

Co-ordinate  Conjunctions 200 

Copulative,  meaning  of..  132,  134,201  (note) 

Copula,  what 50 

Correlatives,  errors  in  use  of 208,  209 

2>  of  the  ed  of  verbs  in  past  tense, 

274  (note) 
D  of  the  ed  of  past  participles.  .274  (note) 

Uire,  without  s  form 304 

Dash  the aso 

Declarative  Sentence,  defined 85 

f  defined 246 

I   of  interrogative  pronouns.  249 

i   of  nouns 246 

I  of  personal  pronouns.  .247,  248 

I  of  relative  pronouns 249 

Degree,  adverbs  of 188 

Descriptive  Style .151,  152,  155 

Diminution,  degrees  of 259 

Dia-       i  a,  what 9 

gram,      '  may  be  omitted preface,  24 

Do,  idiomatic  use  of 211  (note) 

Each     S  construction  of 58 

other,      '  with  two  or  more. .  .2.50  (note) 
JEd  of  past  tense  and  participle. 274  (note) 


Declen- 
sion, 


PAGE 

Eithe?'  and  neither,  pronouns  and  con- 
junctions, with  two  or  more  .  .250  (note) 

Either  may  be  used  for  each 251  (note) 

Elocution,   object  of :.      2 

,  defined 335 

Energy,    •<  exercises  in 341-344 

f  secured  how 167,  335 

English  Grammar,  definition  of 2 

Epigrams  are  what 87  (note) 

Evidence    distinguished    from    Cause, 

113  (note) 

Ezdam-   \ 

(  definition  of 85 

_     .  I  order  of  words  in 99 

Sentences,  ' 

{  of  absolute  phrases 142 

Expan-    J   of  infinitive  phrases 143 

sion,       I  of  participles 142 

t  of  sentences 99,  100 

^itT     !.'^«fl°itionof 57 

„  . .  -        (   punctuation  of 59 

Modifier,   '  ^ 

r  basis  of 335 

Figures        definition 335,  336 

of       ]  illustrations  of 342-344 

Speech,        names  of 336 

I  uses  of 155,  335,  336 

First  two,  etc 251  (note) 

Force  (see  Energy). 

Far  to 2&3  (note) 

^  defined 227,228 

I  distinguished  from  sex...  228 

J   of  names  of  animals 231 

Gender,    j  of  what  importance 231 

I  of  pronouns,  errors  in 233 

^-  used  in  personification 232 

Gender  Forms 228-233 

Genders,  the  three  defined 228 

Had  better,  rather,  sooner 290  (note) 

Hand  in  hand,  construction  of, 

46  (note) 

Have  written,  history  of , 290 

He  or  07ie  after  the  indefinite  one, 

250  (note) 

Humor,  in  style 162 

Hyphen,  use  of 331 

Idea  distinguished  from  object 7 


Index. 


379 


v. 


PAGE 

for  eoen  if,  although 117 

for  whether 204  (note) 

omission  of 116 

[  variety  of  uses 204 

Imagery,  discussion  of 335,  336,  342-344 

Imperative  j  definition  of 85 

Sentence,     i  order  of  words  in 98 

In  and  into  distinguished 197  (note) 

Jn  case  that,  construction  of 126  (note) 

f  definition  of...  102,  133-135 
Independent  J  joined     without     con- 
Clauses,      1       junction 135 

[  punctuated 135,  136 

Independent  Expressions,  punctuated ...    83 

Indirect,  or  Dative,  Object 62 

Inference,  expressed  by  an  independ- 

entclause 132,  laS,  135 

and    assumed    subject 

after/or 76 

definition  of 272 

double  nature  of 74,  75 

old  dative  of 283  (note) 

use  of  present  perfect 
after  past  indicative, 

300  &  note 
why  called  infinitive. . .     74 

after  a  preposition 76 

as  adjective 76 

as  adjective  modifier. 74,  75 
as  adverb  modifier. .  .74,  75 
as    attribute     comple- 
ment   75,  76 

as  explanatory  modifier,  77 
as  object  complement, 

76,  269 
as    objective    comple- 
ment  77,268 

aa  subject 75 

cleft  or  split 191  (note) 

does  not  with  the  noun 

form  a  clause. .  .78  (note) 
expansion  into  clauses,  143 

independent 79 

Tn  order  that,  construction  of 126 

Interjections 37,  38,  82 

Interrogation  Point,  use  of 85, 131,  325 


Infinitive 
(the), 


Infinitive 
Phrase, 


Interrogative  j 
Pronoans,    | 


It, 


Language, 


PAGE 

declension 249 

definition 170,  172 

list 173 

Interrogative  J  definition  of 85 

Sentences,     (  order  of  words  in 97,98 

Intransitive  Verbs,  definition 187,  189 

Introductory  Words 59 

Invitations,  form  of 362 

f  definition  of 187,  189 

Irregular    J   infiections  of 280 

Verbs,       1  list  of  275-279 

[  persistence  of 279 

for  a  clause 172  (note) 

idiomatic  use  of, 

77,  125,  127,  230  (note) 
use  for  animals  and  children ...  231 

vague 127  (note) 

It  is  me,  him,  etc 252  (note) 

Just  as,  construction  of Ill 

r  definition  of 2 

made  up  of  words 1,2 

natural 1,  2 

[  word 1,2 

Last  two,  etc 251  (note) 

Lay  and  lie 294 

Less,  the  final  s  of,  and  lesser. .  .259  (note) 

(equaling  that  not 202 
various  uses  of 204 
with  noun  clause. 202 

Letters,  the  alphabet 5-7 

body  of 362 

conclusion  of. 36:i 

heading  of .359 

illustration  of 365-367 

introduction   of .360,  361 

parts  of ,358 

superscription  of 364 

Letter-Writing 358.367 

Loose  Sentence 313 

Many  a,  explanation  of 71  &  note 

Manner,  adverbs  of 188 

Masculine  Gender  distinguished 228 

Masculine  Pronoun,  use  of 231 

May 275  (note),  284,  370-372 

definition  of,  45  (note),  156,  336 
exercises  in  use  of 342-344 


Letters, 


Metaphor, 


380 


Index. 


Metonymy, 


Modes, 


Modifiers, 


PAGE 

Methinks 277  (Sd  note) 

definition  of 165,  336 

exercises  in  use  of.. 342-344 

Mine,  thine,  of  mine,  etc 247  (2d  note) 

Mode  is  what 271,  272 

-imperative.  271,272 
indicative.. 271,  272 
potential... 271,  272 
subjunctive, 
I  271,  272 

definitions  of 272 

imperative,   no   2d   and 

3d  persons. .  .282  (2d  note) 
indicative,  uses  of. .  .296-299 

potential  omitted 370-374 

subjunctive, 

282  (note),  296-299 

Modifieations,"  definition 217  &  note,  218 

Modified  Complement 48 

definition 23 

different  rank 24  (note) 

explanatory,      punctua- 

{      tion 59 

Must 275  (note),  284,  370-372 

Myself y  explanatory 60,  239 

N,  Saxon  ne,  the  negative  particle.  188  (note) 

Narrattve  Style 159, 162 

Natural  Language 1,  2 

Need^  without  s  form 304 

Negation  by  adverbs 188  (note) 

Negatives,  double 192  &  note 

No  and  yes,  sentence-words 188  (note) 

No  bodty  (or  one)  else''s 251  (note) 

Nominative  Forms,  eight 252 

Nonn  a,  definition  of 13,  170 

abstract 171 

as  adjective  modifiers  . .    57 
as  adverb  modifiers  ....    62 

cases  of 234,  236 

classes  of 171 

collective 171 

common     and     proper, 

169,  171  &  note 

declension 234,  246 

gender  of 227-233 

number,  kinds  of 218  I 


Noons, 


Nouns 
icontO, 


Noon 
Clauses, 


Noun 
Modifier, 


Number, 


PAGE 

person  of 233,  286 

roots  of 170  (note) 

scheme  for  general  review.  255 
■  as  attribute  complement,  123, 125 
as  explanatory  modifer,  123,  125 
as  object  complement..  123,  124 
as  principal  term  of  prepo- 
sitional phrase, 123,  126 

as  subject 123,  124 

connectives  of 202 

contraction  of 128,  129 

definition  of 123 

position  of 127,  128 

L  punctuation  of 127 

explanatory  (  a  p  p  o  s  i  - 

tive) 57 

explanatory  of   a  sen- 
tence      58 

possessive 57 

definition  of 218 

kinds  of 218 

of  noun  agreeing  with 

adjective 263,  264 

of  nouns  determined  . .  226 
of  verbs  shows  what. . .  273 

O  and  oh  distinguished 48 

Object  and   Object   Complement  distin- 
guished  187,  189  (note) 

Object,  indirect 62 

Object,  indirect,  made  subject 269 

becoming  subject... 267,  268 

compound 48 

definition  of 48 

retained   after  verb  in 

passive 269 

Objective  Forms,  seven 252 

an  infinitive  phrase.  .77,  268 

a  participle 68,  69,  268 

becoming  an  attribute 

complement 268 

definition  of 53,  54 

extended    beyond    i  t  s 
factitive  sense.  68  (2d  note) 

^      j  in  place  of  possessive  sign 242 

1  not  always  indicating  possession.  245 
Of  mine,  etc 247  (2d  note) 


Object  Com- 
plement, 


Objective 
Complement, 


Index. 


381 


another^ 

Only,      •{ 

Order  (words 
and  phrases), 


Parsing, 


PAGE 

On  condition  that 196  (note) 

One        j  syntax  of 238 

I  with  two  or  more. 250  (note) 

(  position  of 191 

1  syntax  of 33 

transposed 91-99 

usual 89-91 

Other,  misuse  of 264 

Ought 275  (note),  296,  300 

f  composition  of 158-168 

Paragrapli  J  definition  of 158,  159 

(the),       1  topics  and  subtopics  of .  158 

i  unity  of 162,  167 

Paragraphing,  exercises  in,  156-1 68,  346-353 

Parallel  Construction 142  (note),  168 

Parenthesis,  marks  of 83,  331 

Parenthetical  Claases,  punctuation 136 

[■  definition  of 239 

first  step  in 22 

models  for  written, 
i  46,  240,  261,  294,  295 

adjectival 64 

as  adjective  modifiers 67 

as  attribute  complements..  .67,  68 

as  mere  adjectives 71 

as  mere  nouns 71 

as  objective  complements,  68,  268 

as  prepositions 194 

as  principal  word  in  a  phrase, 

69,70 

definition  of 65,  272,  273 

expansion  of 142 

forms  of 288 

in  independent  phrases 71 

misuse  of 72,  73 

modified  by  a  and  the.  ,246  (note) 
modified  by  a  possessive, 

246  &  note 
nounal,  called   gerunds,  in- 
jtnitives,  verbal  nouns, 

65  &  66  (note) 

place  of 72,73 

punctuation  of 72 

used  in  slurring 158 

PassiTe  Voice,  idiomatic  constructions, 

269,270 


Parti- 
ciplea, 


PAGE 

Period,  use  of 9, 14,  325 

Periodic  Sentence 313 

(forms.  .233-235,  272,  280  (note), 
303,304 
of  a  noun  or  pronoun.  .234,  235 
of  a  verb 273 

^  why  regarded  in  grammar.  236 
Personification,  the  figure, 

87  (note),  232,  336 

Persons,  the  three  defined 234,  235 

Per-     j  definition  of 334 

spicnity,  (  exercises  in 337-340 

^  absolute 81,  82 

adjective  and  adverb 31 

as  prepositions 195 

complex  and  compound ...    40 

definition  of 31,  32 

infinitive 74-62,  143 

interchange  with  clauses, 
Phrases,  -|  142, 143 

interchange  with  words  ...     36 

participial 67, 82,  91 

position  of 35 

prepositional 31-36 

punctuation  of 34 

used  independently 81,  82 

verb    21  &  note 

Place,  adverbs  of 188 

Plural  Number 218 

f  ending,  origin 219  (note) 

foreign  forms  of 221 

formed  irregularly 219,  220 

formed  regularly 218 

form  same  as  singular 224 

forms  of  verbs 303 

forms  treated  as  singular. .  224 

no  form  for 224 

Plural,   "I  of  compound  words. . .  221,  222 

of  letters,  figures,  etc 223 

of  proper  names 222 

some  originally  singular. , ,  225 

some  words  always 224,  225 

two   forms  with  different 


meaning 

without    singular   of 
meaning 


like 


Index. 


Pos- 
sessWe 

Ending, 


Predi- 
cate, 


PAGE 

added  to  explanatory  word,  244 

ambiguity  avoided  by 245 

attached  to  the  adjective, 

243  (note) 

confined  to  what 242 

error  respecting 240  (note) 

errors  in  use  of 243,  245 

of  for 242 

of  compound  names 242 

origin  of 240  (note) 

when  omitted ,238,  241 

when  pronounced  es 241 

f  adjective  defined 50 

I  a  verb  or  contains  one 22 

compound 37,  38 

■{  definition  of 3,  8,  49,  50 

modified 27,28 

noun  defined 50 

of  two  or  more  words 10 

PrepoBition  a,  defined 31,  32,  194 

becoming  adverbs 195 

ending  a  sentence 198  (note) 

ending  in  ing 194 

errors  in  use  of 197-199 

list  of 194 

two  before  a  noun  . .  .198  (note) 
where  sometimes  found  . . .  104 
with  verb  before  a  noun, 

198  (note) 

Pronoun  a,  defined 13,  171 

agreement 305-307 

Nom,  and  Obj.  forms. . .  252 
r  adjective..  170,  172 
j  interrogative, 

170,  172 
personal, 
I  169,  170,  172 

I  relative...  170,  172 

declension  of 247-249 

denote  relations. .  .171  (note) 
errors  in  use  of, 

174-180,  251-254 

need  of 13 

number 218 

scheme  for  review 256 

.  vagueness  of 171  (note) 


Preposi 
tions,    ' 


Prcnonns, 


Prononns 
(Adjec- 
tive), 


Pronouns 
(Interroga- 
tive), 


Pronouns 
(Personal), 


PAGE 

a  (day)  or  two 250  (note) 

aJi^  bot/iy  and  whole  be- 
fore o/" 250  (note) 

any  body  (or  one)  else's, 

etc 251  (note) 

declension  of 247-250 

definition  of 170,  172 

demonstrative 173  (note) 

distributive 173  (note) 

each  other,  with  two  or 

more 250  (note) 

either,  neither,  with  two 

or  more 250  (note) 

either  for  each 251  (note) 

Jirst  two,  last  three,  etc.,  , 

251  (note) 
he,  etc.  after  indefinite 

one 250  (note) 

indefinite 173  (note) 

no}ie  in  both  numbers, 

251  (note) 

ones,  plural 250  (note) 

other   and  tha?i,  words 

between 251  (note) 

other  tivo,  when  one  of 
three  is  taken. .  .250  (note) 

partial  list  of 173 

such   or  so  with  adjec- 
tives       ..250  (note) 

declension 249 

definition 170,  172 

list 173 

avoided  when 174,  175 

compound 170,  248 

consistent  use  of 175 

declension 247,  248 

definition 169,  170,  172 

its,  history  of 248  (note) 

misuse  of  them  for  tliose, 

175,  176 
my  and  mine,  etc., 

247  (2d  note) 

order  of 305 

ours,  yours,  etc.,  double 


247  (2d  note) 


[ndex. 


Pronoims 
(Personal) 


PronoTins 
(Relative), 


PAGE 

(-  use  of  compound, 

248  (2d  note) 

used  needlessly 175 

we  hardly  plural  of   7, 
1  247  (note) 

{  tve  instead  of  /. 234 

I  ye  has  given  way  to  you, 
[  247  (.3d  note) 

"  agreement  of 305,  306 

compound 170,  249 

declension 249 

definition 170,  172 

discriminated  in  use 176 

omitted  when 105  (note) 

same  with  same  anteced- 
ent   177 

that'm  restrictive  clauses, 

177  (2d  note) 
that  instead  of  who  and 

lohich 177,  178 

what  misused  for  that, 

176  &  note 
who  and  which  restric- 
tive and  unrestrictive, 

177  «fc  2d  note 
with    omitted    anteced- 
ents  105,106,  176 

141  (note) 

Pnnotaa-     t  exercises  in 327-331 

tion        \  summary  of   rules   for, 
Marks,       l  325-331 

Qualities  of  Style 334-337 

Question,  direct  and  indirect 131 

Quotation  Marks,  use  of 130, 131,  331 

capitalization  of 130 

definition  of 130 

direct 130,  131 

indirect 130,  131 

punctuation  of 130,  131 

Q:uoth 277  (note) 

definition 187,  189 

increasing 279 

inflections  of 280 

Relative  Clauses,  position 178 

Result,  clauses  of 112  (note) 


Pona 


Quotations, 


Regular 
Verbs, 


PAGE 

Review  Questions,  11,  30,  47,  63,  64,  89, 
101,  122,  146,  147,  213-215,  255,  256, 

265,  266,309-313 

Review  of  Sentence,  scheme  for 148 

Satire i62 

Semicolon,  rules  for 136,  328 

r  balanced 136  (note) 

I  contracted 99-101,  137,  138 

Sentence  J  defined 3,  7 

(the),     1  expanded 99,  100 

loose 313 


Sentences 

(classed), 


period 
fonn, 


mean- 
ing, 


313 

complex 102,  laS 

compound .  .132,  133 

simple 102,  133 

declarative 84,85 

exclamatory....    85 

imperative 85 

interrogative .  .84,  85 

Set  and  sit 295 

Shall  and  wUL275  (note),  301-303,  371,  372 

ShotUd  and  wwcld 301-303,  371,  372 

Simile,  definition  and  exercises  in, 

156,  336,  343,  344 

Simple     j  definition  of 102,  las 

Sentences,  I  treatment  of 7-101 

Since,  various  uses  of 201,  202,  204 

Singular  Number 218 

So  .  .  .  as,  construction  of 112 

Some  body  (or  one)  else's 251  (note) 

Sounds  and  Letters 4-6 

(  figures  of 155,  335,  336 

1  mechanism  of 4,  5 

Spelling,  rules  for 258 

argumentative 164,  167 

definition  of 334 

descriptive 152,  155 

illustrations 314-323 

narrative 159,  162 

l  qualities  of 334-337 

J-  alssumed,  what 74 

I  assumed,  changed  to  pre- 
vent ambiguity 245 

compound 37,  38 

defined 8 

I.  determined  how 11 


Style, 


Subject, 


384 


Index. 


PAGE 

Bobject  {cord.),  modified,  or  logical 23 

Subjunc-    I  definition  of 271,  272 

tive      <  disappearing 282  (note) 

Mode,      '  uses  of 296-299 

Subordinate  Conjonctions 200,  202 

Sabordinate  Connectives 201,  202 

Synecdoche 336 

Synopsis  is  what 273 

Syntax,  rules  for 368,  369 

r  defined 271,273 

future,  how  used 292 

future  perfect,  how  used..  293 

past,  how  used 292 

past  perfect,  how  used 293 

present,  how  used 292,  300 

present  perfect,  how  used, 


Tense, 


Tenses, 


Than, 


f  defined 271-273 

J  emphatic  form  of 284 

I  errors  in  use  of 299-301 

[  conjunctive  adverb 112 

f  errors  in  use  of 209,  210 

followed  by  adjective, 

252  &  note,  253 

replaced  by  buU  etc. 209 

use  after  comparatives 209 

with  me  after  it, 

252  (2d  note) 

Than  whom 253  (note) 

That  and  this,  adjectives,  plurals, 

257  (note) 

That  and  this  j  declension 249 

(Adj.  Pro.),   <  reference 179 

with  cause  clause 205 

with  noun  clause, 

123-126,202,205 
with  purpose  clause, 

116,  202,  205 
That,  Conj.  Adv.,  degree  clause, 

112,  202,  205 
distinguished  from  who 

and  which .176,  178 

for  who  and  which .  .177,  178 
generally  restrictive, 

177  (note) 
t  preposition  follows 104 


That 
(Conj.) 


That 
(Rel.  Pr.), 


PAGE 

The,  uses  of 183,  IW 


The 


S  construction  of..  112,  113 


To  with 
infini- 
tive, 


^  explanation  of..  112  (note) 

/  framework  of 354,  356 

Themes,  -<  how  to  write  them 355^357 

I  subjects  for. .  .354,  355,  357,  358 

The  one,  the  other 179 

This 179,  249,  257  (note) 

Thought,  how  expressed 2,  3 

Three  times  four  is  twelve 306 

construction  of 74 

expressing  relation 74 

extension  of 283  (note) 

no  part  of 283  (note) 

not  expressed 81 

position  of 191  &  note 

without  relation 74,  75 

Transitive  j  definition  of 187,  189 

Verbs,       '  conjugated  passively 287 

Unity  of  paragraphs 162,  167 

Unless  (=  if  not) 115 

Usage preface,  250  (note) 

Variety.  \  ^^"^  secured 344,  345 

<  illustrations  of  want  of  . . .  345 
Verb  a,  defined 20,  189 

ian  auxiliary 274 
conjugation  of 284-286 
derivation  of 284  (note) 

Verb-Phrases 21  (note) 


Verbs 

(classes). 


form, 


meaning, 


a   modern 


Verbs, 


irregular...  187-189 
regular.... 187,  189 
intransitive, 

187,  189 
transitive,  187,  189 
r  a   juuuerii  passive   progres- 
sive form 287,  288 

analysis  of  compound  tense 

forms 290,291 

as  nouns 73 

auxiliary 273,  274,  370-372 

changing  their  voice 267-271 

conjugated    in    progressive 

form 287 

conjugated  interrogatively. .  288 

conjugated  negatively 289 

conjugation  of 279-289 


Index. 


385 


PAGE 

defective 275 

forme  not  asserting 20 

improper  forms  used 295,  296 

indicative  and  potential  with 
subjunctive  meaning, 

282  (note) 

inflections  of 280 

intran-   (  definition  of  . .  .187,  189 

sitive,   '(  made  transitive  ...  270 

f  definition...  188,  189 

j  list  of 275-279 

irregular,  \  persistence  of  ...279 
principal    parts 

of 275-279 

mode,  defined 271,  272 

model  for  written  parsing. . .  294 

number  forms 280,  303,  304 

number  of  defined 273 

passive  form  compound 267 

periphrastic  forms  resolved, 

289-291 

person  forms 280,  303,  304 

person  of 273,  305 

potential  auxiliaries.. 284, 370-372 

principal  parts 274 

redundant 274 

j  definition  of. .  187,  189 

« increasing 279 

scheme  for  gen.  review 308 

Strong  (or  Old),  Weak  (or 

New) 274  (note) 

subjunctive  form  fading 282 

tense 271-273 

the  e  and  the  d  of  past  tense, 

274  (note) 
the  €  and  the  d  of  past  parti- 
ciple  274  (note) 

/definition  of. ..  .187,  189 
transi-^  conjugated   passive- 

ti^«'    (     ly 287 

voice 266 

f  attracted 306 

Verbs  (agree-  J   errors  in 307 

ment  of),       ]    with  and  in  what 303 

L  with  collective  noun ,  304 


Verbs  (agree- 
ment of) 
(cont.), 


.304,  305 


305 


regular, 


PAGE 

with    subjects     con- 
nected by  an<?.. 304,  305 
with  subjects  con- 
nected by  or  or  noi'.  305 
with    subjects     em- 
phatically d  i  s  t  i  n - 

guished 304 

with  subjects  naming 

same  thing 304 

-   with  subjects  one 
affirmative  and  one 
negative  , 
with  subjects  follow- 
ing  

with   subjects   pre- 
ceded   by    each, 

evefy,  etc 304 

with  subjects  varying 

in  person 305 

Vocal  Consonants 5,  6 

Voice,  the  voices  defined 266 

Voices  changed 267-271 

Vowels 5 

equal  to  that  or  whom 105 

in  origin 105  (note) 

misuse  for  that 176  (note) 

various  uses  of. 176  &  note,  211 
without  antecedent. . .  105,  176 

(conjunctive  adverb  — 110,  201 
connecting  various  clauses.  205 
in  adjective  clauses 106 
interrogative  adverb.  189  (note) 
f  conjunctive  adverb...  .106,  201 
J  connecting  various  clauses.  205 

I  in  adjective  clauses 106 

[  interrogative  adverb.189  (note) 

j  repeated 202  (note) 

yVhether,  -j  ^.^^  ^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^  ^^^^^. 

Whether  or  no 202  (note) 

an  adjective 172  (note),  174 

an  interrogative  pronoun, 

173,  249 

Which^  \  a  relative  pronoun 172.  249 

clause  as  antecedent.. 172  (note) 

composition  of 249 

declension 249 


V/hat, 


When, 


Wiere, 


Index. 


PAGE 

Which    r  in  restrictive  clauses.  177  (note) 
and      •{  in  unrestrictive  clauses  ...  177 

WhOy     ^  that  used  for 177,  178 

While,  connecting  various  clauses 206 

Will  and  would 301-303 

great  number  of  in  Eng, . .     12 

spolien  words  what 4 

transposed  order  of 91-99 

Words,    -i  use   of    determining    the 

class  of 12 

usual  order  of 89-91,  97 

{.  written  words  what 5 


Words 

and 

Phrases 

CcontO, 


1    ir 


PAGE 

'  connected,    each    making 
good  sense  with  context.  209 

independent 81,  82 

independent  nearly 83,  84 

in  pairs,  punctuation 40 

interchangeable 36 

made  prominent 91 

modifying  sentences  ...  .83,  84 

Worth ,  a  verb 277  (2d  note) 

Ye 247  &  3d  note 

Yes  and  No 188  (note) 

You,  verb  form  with ,  306 


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